Lab 1 Recognizing Lab Safety
8th Grade Social Studies
Exit Project
NYC Institute 2009
Table of Contents
1. Description of Project Pg. 3
2. Expectations of the Project Pp. 4-5
3. Project Rubric Pp. 6-7
4. Student Research Packet Pp. 8-40
a. Spanish-American War Pp. 9-12 b. Panama Canal Pp. 13-16 c. Portsmouth Treaty Pp. 17-19 d. Roosevelt Corollary Pp. 20-21
e. Treaty of Versailles Pp. 22-29
f. League of Nations Pg. 31-36
g. Quota Act of 1924 Pp. 37-39
5. Teacher Resources and Lesson Plans Pp. 41-52
Please note anything in red must be erased before you print for students.
I. Description of Global Power and Perceptions Project.
Scholars, during the next several weeks you are going to be working on a project that lets you investigate how American power grew and expanded. You’ll also
Below is a list of seven topics that we have collected materials and resources for you to research. Due to limited time at summer school you will not have time to gather materials and so we have already done this portion of research for you.
TEACHERS: These are suggestions however you may insert your own events as you see fit and as you find resources for the project.
Global Power and Perceptions Topics:
1) Spanish-American War
2) Panama Canal
3) Portsmouth Treaty
4) Roosevelt Corollary and Monroe Doctrine
5) Treaty of Versailles
6) League of Nations
7) Quota Act of 1924 II. Expectations of the Project
TEACHER: You may add to the list below/adjust the outline. These are the following requirements for the Global Perceptions Project
1) A five paragraph essay with. • An introduction explaining how events in the early late 19th-early 20th centuries affected opinions of the US abroad • Three body paragraphs, each focused on a different topic or event that changed global viewpoints about the US. • A conclusion describing the lasting impact of US imperialism
Each body paragraph should include….. • a description of each topic/event • an explanation of how each topic/event increased or decreased US power. • an explanation of how each event changed at least one other country’s viewpoint of the US
2) Poster board that includes:
• One visual and one written document about each topic event (six total; at least three of the six should be primary source documents) • A caption of each document explaining how the related event demonstrates US imperialism and how the event changed at l l east one other country’s perceptions (viewpoints) of the US
3) 5-7 minute oral presentation that includes a short summary of each of the three body paragraphs
**All elements of the project will be graded on a project based rubric.
Timeline:
|Time |Task to be completed |
|Week 3 |Begin Exit Project and research of imperial events. |
|July | |
|Week 4 |Continue research and note-taking |
|July |1st draft of writing completed by the end of the week. |
|Week 5 |Edit and finalize writing. |
|July |Choose documents to use on poster board. |
| |Put poster board together for presentation. |
| |Practice/Rehearse presentation. |
|Last day of Summer School |Present completed exit project to the rest of the class. |
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Student Research Packet
Spanish American War
http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/stream/faq45-11.htm
Spanish-American War 1898
On the night of 15 February l898 the battleship USS Maine was shattered by an explosion which sent the ship and two-thirds of her crew to the bottom of Havana harbor. Supported by wide-spread sympathy for those who were seeking Cuban independence from Spain's colonial rule, the Maine tragedy forced the already strained Spanish-American relations to the breaking point, causing a short war quickly decided by two naval battles.
On 1 May the U.S. Pacific Squadron under Commodore George Dewey steamed into Manila Bay, Philippine Islands, and destroyed the Spanish fleet. Two months later, Admiral William Sampson repeated with a victory over the Spanish in a running battle off Santiago, Cuba.
In addition to Sampson and Dewey's crushing victories, naval operations included blocking the Cuban coast, bombarding Spanish forts at San Juan, Puerto Rico by battleship USS Iowa., armored cruiser USS New York and other ships, and gunfire support of Marine and Army landings in Cuba and Puerto Rico. America emerged from the Spanish-American War as a major naval power.
4 Bronze stars 1. Battle of Manila Bay (1 May 1898) 2. Pacific Ocean operation 3. Battle of Santiago (3 July 1898) 4. Atlantic/Caribbean operations
Remember the Maine
The battleship Maine drifted lazily at its mooring. Although the Havana night was moonless, the Maine's gleaming white hull -- longer than a football field -- contrasted against the blackness of the sea and sky. Smoke wisped from its two mustard-colored funnels. Random lights sparkled from its portholes and its bridge. In the captain's cabin, Charles Sigsbee sat at a table writing a letter to his wife. The trouble in Cuba, he wrote, would soon be over. The new Spanish governor of the island seemed to have the situation under control. During the three weeks that the Maine had been in Havana, Captain Sigsbee had seen no sign of Cuban rebels. He'd entertained the Spanish officers in his mess hall, and he and his staff had been entertained by the local officials.
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General Fitzhugh Lee
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Capt. Charles D. Sigsbee, 1898
Even Fitzhugh Lee, the American diplomat, seemed optimistic. A month earlier the old general (Lee had commanded a cavalry division under his uncle Robert E. in the Civil War) had summoned a battleship to "protect American interests." Although the Maine was only a second-class battleship, it was the largest ship ever to enter Havana harbor. To the Cubans, it was a floating American fortress right in their capital city. Aboard the Maine, "taps" sounded at ten minutes past nine. Captain Sigsbee describes what happened next.
“I laid down my pen and listened to the notes of the bugle, which were singularly beautiful in the oppressive stillness of the night. . . . I was enclosing my letter in its envelope when the explosion came. It was a bursting, rending, and crashing roar of immense volume, largely metallic in character. It was followed by heavy, ominous metallic sounds. There was a trembling and lurching motion of the vessel, a list to port. The electric lights went out. Then there was intense blackness and smoke.
The situation could not be mistaken. The Maine was blown up and sinking. For a moment the instinct of self-preservation took charge of me, but this was immediately dominated by the habit of command.
Captain Sigsbee managed to reach the deck, now slanted down sharply toward the submerged bow. He climbed aft toward the only part of the ship that was not awash. Fires had broken out all over the vessel, and they lit the harbor in an eerie red glow. In Havana lights began to shine from windows that had just been smashed by the blast. Most of the crew had been asleep in their berths at the forward part of the ship, which was already at the bottom of the harbor. The stern sunk more slowly. Crews from nearby ships manned lifeboats to rescue the surviving crewmen of the Maine. "Chief among them," Sigsbee wrote, "were the boats from the Alfonso XII. The Spanish officers and crews did all that humanity and gallantry could compass." Reluctantly, Captain Sigsbee abandoned the Maine, which continued to burn and explode throughout the night.
The twisted, burnt wreckage of the Maine 's stern and bridge was still above water in the morning. It remained there for years. Two hundred fifty-four sailors were dead, and fifty-nine were wounded. Eight of the wounded later died. The navy conducted an investigation into the cause of the disaster, but it never discovered who was responsible for the explosion.
Yellow Journalism
[pic]
Joseph Pulitzer
Drawing of "The Yellow Kid"
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The World
Download a movie of the World being delivered.
The American press, however, had no doubts about who was responsible for sinking the Maine. It was the cowardly Spanish, they cried. William Randolph Hearst's New York Journal even published pictures. They showed how Spanish spies had attached an underwater mine to the Maine and had exploded it from shore. As one of the few sources of public information, newspapers had reached great influence and importance. Newspaper owners, such as Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer of the World, viciously competed for their reader's attention. They were determined to reach a daily circulation of a million people, and they didn't mind making up stories in order to reach their goal. They competed in other ways as well. The World was the first newspaper to introduce colored comics, and the Journal immediately copied it. The two papers often printed the same comics under different titles. One of these involved the adventures of "The Yellow Kid," a little boy who always wore a yellow gown. Since color presses were new in the 1890s, the finished product was not always perfect. The colors, especially the Yellow Kid's costume, often smeared. Soon people were calling the World, the Journal, and other papers like them "the yellow press." A minor revolt in Cuba against the Spanish colonial government provided a colorful topic. For months now the papers had been painting in graphic detail the horrors of Cuban life under Spanish rule. The Spanish had confined many Cubans to concentration camps. The press called them "death camps." Wild stories with screaming headlines -- Spanish Cannibalism, Inhuman Torture, Amazon Warriors Fight For Rebels -- flooded the newsstands. Newspapers sent hundreds of reporters, artists, and photographers south to recount Spanish attacks. The journalists, including such notables as author Stephen Crane and artist Frederick Remington, found little to report on when they arrived.
"There is no war," Remington wrote to his boss. "Request to be recalled." [pic]
In the 1890s Remington's boss, William Randolph Hearst, sent a cable in reply: "Please remain. You create the pictures, I'll create the war." Hearst was true to his word. For weeks after the Maine disaster, the Journal devoted more than eight pages a day to the story. Not to be outdone, other papers followed Hearst's lead. Hundreds of editorials demanded revenge for the Maine. Many Americans agreed. Soon a rallying cry could be heard everywhere -- in the papers, on the streets, and in the halls of Congress: "Remember the Maine! To hell with Spain."
Effects of the Spanish American War
http://www.military.com/Resources/HistorySubmittedFileView?file=history_spanishamericanwar.htm
The United States made its first step toward imperialism with its role in the Spanish-American War, a conflict that lasted less than four months.
The Spanish-American War began during the Cuban Revolution of 1895. The U.S. government didn’t take sides at first, but became concerned when the Spanish Governor began forcing thousands of citizens into concentration camps while his forces destroyed the countryside. Because of American business interests on the island and sympathy for the Cuban insurrectos, relations between the U.S. and Spain grew worse. Biased U.S. newspapers, in the first major example of "yellow journalism," exaggerated the attacks committed against the Cubans, and public opinion called for the U.S. to pressure Spain into granting Cuba its independence.
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At approximately 9:40 p.m. on the evening of February 15, 1898, the battleship USS Maine exploded in Havana Harbor. The U.S. Navy and Marine Corps suffered 267 casualties. Although the true cause of the explosion has never been determined, the Spanish government was held responsible. After unsuccessful talks lasting almost four months, President McKinley asked Congress for a declaration of war on April 11, 1898. Two weeks later, war between the United States and Spain was official.
The major battles of the war took place in the Spanish colonies of the Philippine Islands, Cuba, and Puerto Rico. In the Philippines, the Spanish were easily defeated in the naval Battle of Manila Bay on May 1. A short time later the U.S. Army landed on the island, bringing it under American control. The campaign in the Caribbean was initially unsuccessful, as troops were ill-equipped and poorly supplied. The Marines came ashore at Guantanamo, Cuba, on June 10, but it took another 12 days for the Army to land a force. Nevertheless, by July 17, the Spanish had surrendered.
A week later, a United States expedition landed in Puerto Rico. Within three days, most of the island was under American control. On August 1, a cease fire was declared. On December 10, 1898, the United States and Spain signed the Treaty of Paris, officially ending the war, which had lasted less than 100 days.
As a result of what Secretary of State John Hay called "a splendid little war," the United States emerged from the conflict as a world power. Cuba was owned by America until 1903 and Guantanamo remains a U.S. Navy base. The U.S. also gained control of Puerto Rico and Guam, and both remain affiliated today. The Philippines were purchased from Spain for twenty million dollars. As a direct result of the war, the United States also annexed Hawaii, Wake Island and several of the Samoan Islands. Spain's colonial empire was no more, and the U.S. had become a major military power with a two-ocean navy.
For the U.S., gaining a large colonial empire did not come without costs. Filipinos, tired of their colonial rule by Spain and hoping for independence, disliked U.S. control. A revolt broke out in the Philippines, and on February 4, 1899, the U.S. undertook a campaign to end the revolt. Deaths in this guerilla war mounted to over four times that of the Spanish-American War. The Philippine Revolt lasted until July 4, 1902, when President Theodore Roosevelt declared the Philippines pacified. Like Vietnam, American citizens were not concerned about this undeclared war and no parades were held for the returning troops. The Philippines achieved independence shortly after World War II.
Timeline: Panama
A chronology of key events: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/country_profiles/1229333.stm 1502 - Spanish explorer Rodrigo de Bastidas visits Panama, which was home to Cuna, Choco, Guaymi and other native peoples.
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|p|Panama City grew rapidly during years of |
|i|canal construction |
|c|Old city founded in 1519 |
|]|Population (metro): 1.14 million |
1519 - Panama becomes Spanish Vice-royalty of New Andalucia (later New Granada).
1821 - Panama becomes independent of Spain, but joins the confederacy of Gran Colombia, which also comprises Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia.
1830 - Panama becomes part of Colombia following the collapse of Gran Colombia.
1846 - Panama signs treaty with US allowing it to build a railway across the isthmus (a narrow strip of land connecting two continents)
1880s - France attempts to build a canal linking the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, but fails due to financial difficulties and the death of more than 20,000 workers from tropical diseases.
Independence, building the canal
1903 - Panama splits from Colombia and becomes fully independent. US buys rights to build Panama Canal and is given control of the Canal Zone.
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|p|US controlled the Panama Canal for almost a |
|i|century |
|c|Length: 65 km (40 miles) |
|]|15 August 1915: Official opening |
| |1 January 2000: Control passes to Panama by |
| |treaty |
| |[pic] |
| |2000: Thousands celebrate Panama Canal |
| |handover |
| |On This Day 1978: Carter wins Panama Canal |
| |battle |
1914 - Panama Canal completed.
1939 - Panama stops being a US protectorate.
1968-81 - General Omar Torrijos Herrera, the National Guard chief, overthrows the elected president and imposes a dictatorship.
1977 - US agrees to transfer the canal to Panama as from 31 December 1999.
1981 - Torrijos dies in plane crash.
1983 - Former intelligence chief and one-time US Central Intelligence Agency informant Manuel Noriega becomes head of the National Guard, builds up the size of the force, which he renames the Panama Defence Forces, and greatly increases its power over Panama's life including the canal.
1988 - US charges Noriega with drug smuggling; Noriega declares state of emergency in the wake of a failed coup.
US invades
1989 - Noriega declares "state of war" in the face of increased threats by Washington. US invades Panama, pulling out Noriega and replacing him with Guillermo Endara.
1991 - Parliament approves reforms, including destroying the standing army; privatisation begins.
1992 - US court finds Noriega guilty of drug offences and sentences him to 40 years imprisonment, to be served in a US prison.
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|p|Military leader Manuel Noriega was ousted by|
|i|the US |
|c|[pic] |
|]|2000: No parole for Noriega |
| |Noriega fails to stop extradition |
1999 - Mireya Moscoso becomes Panama's first woman president.
1999 December - Panama takes full control of the Panama Canal, ending nearly 100 years of American control over one of the world's most strategic waterways.
2000 - Moscoso announces creation of a panel to investigate crimes committed while military governments were in power between 1968 and 1989.
2002 January - President Moscoso sets up a commission to investigate corruption. The move follows large street protests.
2002 April - Panama removed from international list of uncooperative tax havens after promising to make its tax system more transparent.
2003 September - National strike over management of social security fund paralyses public services. More than 40 hurt in clashes.
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|Fireworks in Panama City mark 100 years of |
|independence |
2004 May - Martin Torrijos, son of former dictator Omar Torrijos, wins presidential elections.
2004 November - Panama Canal earns record revenues of $1 billion for the financial year.
Canal upgrade
2006 October - Voters choose to back a $5.2 billion plan to upgrade the Panama Canal. The scheme aims to double the number of ships the waterway can hold.
2006 December - Panama and the US agree on a free trade deal.
2007 September - Work to widen Panama Canal begins.
2008 February - Fatal shooting of union leader triggers violent clashes between police and construction workers in Panama City.
Panama Canal – History and International Status
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/440784/Panama-Canal
The Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty gave the United States the right to act in the entire 16-km- (10-mile-) wide, ocean-to-ocean Canal Zone as “if it were the ruler.” Thus, the Canal Zone became a foreign colony that divided Panama, despite Theodore Roosevelt’s declaration in 1906 that no such result was intended. The Canal Zone was administered by an American governor appointed by the U.S. president. In order to guarantee operation of the canal in the event of war, U.S. military units were stationed in the Canal Zone.
Some of the harsher effects of the 1903 treaty were softened by other treaties, mostly those of 1936 and 1955. The United States gave up its claimed right to acquire additional lands and waters adjacent to the canal, granted Panamanian control over the ports at Colón and Panama City, and brought the wages of Panamanians employed in the Canal Zone closer to the level of Americans. But the Panamanians continued to press for more changes, including full control over the canal. After years of talks and compromise, agreement was reached between the two governments in 1977. The Panama Canal Treaty was signed on September 7 of that year by General Omar Torrijos Herrera of Panama and President Jimmy Carter of the United States. It ended all earlier treaties between the United States and Panama concerning the canal and ended the Canal Zone. The treaty recognized Panama as the only leader in the former Canal Zone, but it gave the United States the right to continue managing, operating, and maintaining the canal and to use lands and waters necessary for those purposes during a transition period of 20 years covered by the agreement. The treaty went into effect on October 1, 1979, and expired on December 31, 1999.
The 1977 treaty was supported by a Neutrality Treaty that also went into effect in 1979 but has no end date. Under the Neutrality Treaty the United States and Panama guarantee that the canal will always be neutral, with tolls and access for all nations; U.S. and Panamanian warships, get faster passage. No nation other than Panama may operate the canal or have a military force within Panamanian territory. The United States, reserved the right to use military force, to keep the canal open; this was, in part, the rationale behind the U.S. military intervention in Panama in
Wayne D. BrayBurton L. GordonWilliam E. Worthington, Jr.
Treaty of Portsmouth
http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/history/A0839843.html
Portsmouth, Treaty of, 1905, treaty ending the Russo-Japanese War. It was signed at the Portsmouth Naval Base, New Hampshire, on Sept. 5, 1905. Talks leading up to the treaty began in the spring of 1905 when Russia had suffered severe defeats and Japan was having monetary problems. Both nations expressed a desire for peace. Germany, the United States, and Great Britain were valuable in forcing the two countries to resolve the dispute with each other. However, the United States and Britain demanded promises from Japan before smoothing the way for the treaty. President Theodore Roosevelt demanded that Japan follow the Open Door policy in Manchuria and return the region to China. In the Taft-Katsura agreement of July, 1905, Roosevelt agreed to Japanese leadership in Korea in return for American freedom of action in the Philippines. Great Britain had the Anglo-Japanese treaty extended to cover all of East Asia and in return also gave Japan a free hand in Korea. Under the terms of the Portsmouth agreement, Russia recognized Korea's independence and the interests of Japan in Korea. Russia also agreed to place Manchuria under the rule of China, and all foreign troops were to be removed. The railway lines in South Manchuria, built by Russia, were given to Japan without payment.
The Liaodong peninsula (see Liaoning), containing the ports of Dalian and Port Arthur was turned over to Japan, as was the southern part of the island of Sakhalin. Japan also gained fishing rights in the waters near the Russian Far East. The Treaty of Portsmouth marked the decline of Russian power in East Asia and the growth of Japan as the strongest power in the area.
The Treaty of Portsmouth & the Russo-Japanese War, 1904-1905 http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/ip/87725.htm The Treaty of Portsmouth ended the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05. The negotiations took place in August in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, and were led by U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt. The final agreement was signed in September of 1905, and it confirmed the Japanese presence in south Manchuria and Korea and gave the southern half of the island of Sakhalin to Japan.
By 1904, Russia and Japan had endured several years of disputes over control of Manchuria. The Russians had entered the region during the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-95 and, along with Germany and France, was a part of the "Triple Intervention" that forced Japan to give up its demands for ports in South Manchuria and the Liaodong Peninsula in the wake of its victory in China. Instead, Russia moved into the area and took control of Port Arthur, an important warm water port. A Japanese attempt to stage an overthrow in nearby Korea was stopped in part by the Russian presence in the region, and the two countries’ different interests appeared more and more likely to clash.
In 1904, the Japanese attacked the Russian fleet at Port Arthur before the formal declaration of war was received in Moscow, surprising the Russian navy and earning an early victory. Over the course of the next year, the two forces clashed in Korea and the Sea of Japan, with the Japanese scoring major, but costly, victories. War deaths were high on both sides. At the battle over Mukden, the Russians lost 60,000 soldiers and the Japanese lost 41,000 soldiers. The military costs were high as well. A Russian fleet made the long trip from the Baltic Sea around Africa and India, only to be half destroyed by the Japanese upon its arrival in Northeast Asia. By 1905, the combination of these losses and the economic cost of paying for the war led both countries to seek an end to the war.
The Japanese asked U.S. President Roosevelt to create a peace agreement, and representatives of the two nations met in Portsmouth, New Hampshire in 1905. For the sake of maintaining the balance of power and equal economic opportunity in the region, Roosevelt preferred that the war end on terms that left both Russia and Japan a role to play in Northeast China. Though excited by the Japanese military victories, Roosevelt worried about the consequences to American interests if Japan managed to drive Russia out entirely.
The talks centered on using ports and territories in Manchuria and Korea, who had control of Sakhalin Island, and the question of who was responsible for paying war costs. The goals of Japan’s representative were control in Korea and South Manchuria, then the payment of war costs and control of Sakhalin Island. The Russians wanted to maintain Sakhalin Island, refused to pay a war costs to the Japanese, and hoped to keep their ships in the Pacific.
When negotiations failed to move ahead, Roosevelt stepped in with the proposal that Russia "buy back" the northern part of Sakhalin from Japanese control. The Russians insisted that they would not pay any amount of money and that the territory ought to be theirs. After long internal debate, Japan eventually agreed to take only the southern half of the island, without any kind of payment. They didn’t have a strong enough victory to fight on this point.
The Treaty gave Japan control of Korea and much of South Manchuria, including Port Arthur and the railway that connected it with the rest of the region, along with the southern half of Sakhalin Island; Russian power shrunk in the region, but Russia was not required to pay Japan's war costs. Because neither nation had enough money to continue the war easily, both were forced to compromise in the terms of the peace. Still, the Japanese public felt they had won the war, and they considered the lack of payment to be offensive. There was a brief outbreak of protests and rioting in Tokyo when the terms of the agreement were made public. Similarly, the Russian people were also upset, angry about giving up half of Sakhalin.
Throughout the war and the peace talks, American public opinion largely sided with Japan. Believing that the Japanese were fighting a "just war" against Russian attacks, and that the island nation was committed to the Open Door Policy of trade, the American people were excited to support it. This sense did not really change over the course of the talks, in spite of the best efforts of the representative to improve the press coverage of his nation's position.
Competition between Japan and the US grew over the years that followed. At the same time, Japanese relations with Russia improved after the treaty. Although the actual importance of Roosevelt's mediation and personal pressure on the leadership in Moscow and Tokyo to the final agreement is unclear, he won the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts in helping the talks and pushing toward peace.
Theodore Roosevelt's Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine (1905) http://www.usnews.com/usnews/documents/docpages/document_page56.htm European involvement in Latin America became an issue in U.S. foreign policy when European governments began to use force to pressure several Latin American countries to repay their debts. For example, British, German, and Italian gunboats blocked Venezuela’s ports in 1902 when the Venezuelan government couldn’t pay its debts to other countries. Many Americans worried that European involvement in Latin America would destroy their country’s traditional leadership in the region.
To keep other powers out, President Theodore Roosevelt issued his corollary. "Chronic wrongdoing . . . may in America, as elsewhere, ultimately require intervention by some civilized nation," he announced in his annual message to Congress in December 1904, "and in the Western Hemisphere the following of the United States to the Monroe Doctrine may force the United States, cases of such wrongdoing, to the exercise of an international police power."
Roosevelt tied his policy to the Monroe Doctrine, and it was also consistent with his foreign policy of “walk softly, but carry a big stick.” Roosevelt stated that in keeping with the Monroe Doctrine, the United States could exercise "international police power" to put an end to unrest or wrongdoing in the Western Hemisphere. The Monroe Doctrine had been sought to prevent European intervention in the Western Hemisphere, but now the Roosevelt Corollary allowed American intervention throughout the Western Hemisphere. In 1934, Franklin D. Roosevelt eliminated the Roosevelt Corollary and established his Good Neighbor policy within the Western Hemisphere.
Roosevelt Corollary and Monroe Doctrine - World Affairs, December 6, 1904
http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1449.html
A developing crisis in the Dominican Republic, where the government stopped payments on its debts of more than $32 million to other nations, caused President Theodore Roosevelt to revise the Monroe Doctrine. First advanced in May 1904 and later expanded in his annual message to Congress in December, Roosevelt stated what would become known as his corollary (extension of) the Monroe Doctrine.
This change in policy was necessary because of a desire to avoid having European powers come to the Western Hemisphere for the purpose of collecting debts. It was feared that those nations might come to get their money, but remain to occupy other nations. This possibility was especially unwelcome at this time when the United States was pushing full steam ahead with the construction of the canal in Panama.
Roosevelt felt that the United States had a “moral mandate” to enforce proper behavior among the nations of Latin America, stating:
It is not true that the United States feels any land hunger or entertains any projects as regards the other nations of the Western Hemisphere save such as are for their welfare. All that this country desires is to see the neighboring countries stable, orderly, and prosperous. Any country whose people conduct themselves well can count upon our hearty friendship. If a nation shows that it knows how to act with reasonable efficiency and decency in social and political matters, if it keeps order and pays its obligations, it need fear no interference from the United States. Chronic wrongdoing, or an impotence which results in a general loosening of the ties of civilized society, may in America, as elsewhere, ultimately require intervention by some civilized nation, and in the Western Hemisphere the adherence of the United States to the Monroe Doctrine may force the United States, however reluctantly, in flagrant cases of such wrongdoing or impotence, to the exercise of an international police power.
The Monroe Doctrine had first been made to keep European nations out of Latin America, but the Roosevelt corollary was used as a reason for U.S. intervention in Latin America.
Public response in the United States favored the treaty, reflecting widely held support for imperialism. Some opposition, however, was voiced by Democrats who were motivated by both principle and politics. Most European responses were quietly supportive, especially from interests who were pleased to have help in collecting their debts. Many Europeans had feelings that the Americans were becoming too power hungry and should be watched carefully.
There was little immediate reaction to the revised doctrine in Latin America. As the years passed and the U.S. intervened in the Caribbean and Central America more often, attitudes changed sharply and America was viewed with increased distrust — and outright hatred in many instances.
Those who came after Roosevelt actually enforced the corollary more often than its author. Even Woodrow Wilson, a Democratic and arch critic of Republican foreign policy, used armed intervention in tumultuous Haiti and the Dominican Republic in 1915 and 1916. In later years, Wilson and other administrations took strong-armed action in Cuba, Nicaragua and Mexico as well as making return visits to Haiti and the Dominican Republic.
Versailles Treaty www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/FWWversailles.htm The Paris Peace Conference opened on 12th January 1919, meetings were held at various locations in and around Paris until 20th January, 1920. Leaders of 32 states representing about 75% of the world's population, attended. However, talks were dominated by the five major powers responsible for defeating the Central Powers: the United States, Britain, France, Italy and Japan. Important figures in these talks included Georges Clemenceau (France) David Lloyd George (Britain), Vittorio Orlando (Italy), and Woodrow Wilson (United States). |[pic] |[pic] |
|A Shattered Peace |Treaty of Versailles |
Five treaties came out of the Conference that dealt with the defeated powers. The five treaties were named after the Paris suburbs of Versailles (Germany), St Germain (Austria), Trianon (Hungary), Neuilly (Bulgaria) and Serves (Turkey).
The main terms of the Versailles Treaty were:
(1) the surrender of all German colonies;
(2) the return of Alsace-Lorraine to France;
(3) giving Eupen-Malmedy to Belgium, Memel to Lithuania, the Hultschin district to Czechoslovakia,
(4) Poznania, parts of East Prussia and Upper Silesia to Poland;
(5) Danzig to become a free city;
(6) votes to be held in northern Schleswig to decide if it belonged to Germany or the Netherlands;
(7) occupation and special status for the Saar under French control;
(8) a fifteen-year occupation of the Rhineland;
(9) Germany paying 3 billion dollars in war debt
(10) a ban on Germany and Austria joining together
(11) an acceptance of Germany's guilt in causing the war;
(11) the trial of the former Kaiser and other war leaders;
(12) keeping Germany's army to 100,000 men with no forced joining, no tanks, no major weapons, no poison-gas supplies, no aircraft and no airships;
(13) not allowing submarines in the German navy;
Germany signed the Versailles Treaty under protest. The US Congress refused to agree to the treaty. Many people in France and Britain were angry that there was no trial of the Kaiser or the other war leaders.
Treaty of Versailles - Wars and Battles, World War I
http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1334.html
Representatives of the German government were brought to Paris and on May 7, 1919, presented with the peace treaty. After examining the more than 200-page document, the Germans were angered. They believed that they had been tricked into an agreement with the promise that the Fourteen Points would serve as the backbone of the peace treaty. What they found instead was very different from the 14 Points. The stage was set for two decades of German poverty and hunger, and for the beginning of World War II.
Peace with Germany, like most complicated issues, needed compromise. Despite German anger, the result of the talks was much more moderate than the harsh terms of Brest-Litovsk, but still far from the spirit of the Fourteen Points.
The treaty contained more than 400 articles, but the major issues can be summarized by the following: • Alsace and Lorraine were returned to France. • German colonies were given to winning countries under the League of Nations. • The Saar Basin was given to France for 15 years, then a vote would be held to decide which country the area belonged to. • Poland became an independent country and gained access to the sea through a strip of land that came to be known as the Polish Corridor. • The amount of German war costs was to be determined by a Commission. • Germany was forced to accept responsibility for all losses and damages in the conflict in the "war guilt clause" (Article 231). • Germany was required to destroy weapons: o The drafting of military personnel wasn’t allowed. o The Rhineland region had to remove its weapons. o The German army was limited in size to 100,000 men. o The German navy and air force were reduced. o The German general staff was no longer allowed. o Restrictions were placed on the manufacture of war material. • The Covenant of the League of Nations was included as part of the treaty.
Wilson’s victories included the creation of a modern Poland, the pledge of support for disarming/destroying weapons, developing colonial trusts and, of course, the creation of the League of Nations. However, in order to get these, he accepted the demands of the Allies on reparations/war costs, stripping Germany of its colonies and the near total destruction of the German military — all of which contributed to anger in the defeated nation.
Wilson was aware of the controversy of the treaty, but believed that they could be overcome in the future by actions of the League of Nations.
The formal signing of the treaty took place on June 2nd.
The Treaty of Versailles:
The Inside Story
http://library.thinkquest.org/CR0215466/treaty_of_versailles.htm
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It is the end of World War I (WWI). Germany has just been involved in, and lost, a war that would change the world forever. The countries that defeated Germany are furious. They blame Germany for starting the war and causing so much harm to their countries. They want and seek revenge. Finally, they come up with a way to get back at Germany. They write a treaty that says Germany is responsible for the war. The treaty takes away Germany’s land, people, money, and belongings. This is that story, the inside story of the Treaty of Versailles.
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What Is the Treaty of Versailles?
Many experts in history say that World War II (WWII) began because of the Treaty of Versailles. This treaty was an agreement between the Allies, the winning countries of WWI, which were mainly France, Italy, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The treaty was created primarily so that the Allies could decide and agree upon what they wanted to do to the Central Powers, the losing countries of WWI, which were mainly Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire.
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The Big Four and the Allies
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At the end of WWI, Allied representatives met in Paris at the Palace of Versailles to discuss and make peace treaties with the Central Powers. Woodrow Wilson (President of the United States), David Lloyd George (Prime Minister of the United Kingdom), Georges Clemenceau (Premier of France), and Vittorio Orlando (Prime Minister of Italy), were known as the Big Four. These men were the leaders of the major Allied countries, and they were the four main people involved in deciding the fate of the Central Powers.
Even before The Treaty of Versailles was written, many of the Allied governments, including Italy and Japan, had already made secret treaties with each other, dividing up certain parts of Germany and its colonies. The Ottoman Empire (now Turkey) and other Central Powers, were also to be divided up. In fact, Italy joined the Allies because of Allied promises to divide the Central Powers and give some of the land to Italy if it joined in the war against Germany.
President Wilson didn’t like the idea of the secret treaties that were made. He didn’t want any terms of the secret treaties to be carried out, but he still felt that Germany should be punished for what it had done. He also wanted to help Germany form a democratic government. He felt that this would help rebuild Europe and prevent future wars.
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Consequences of War
During WWI, there was much devastation done to Germany and other countries. People’s hopes and dreams were shattered. Almost 10,000,000 soldiers around the world died as a result of this war. The Allies wanted Germany to pay for this, so they wrote a treaty which held Germany responsible for WWI. It was called the Treaty of Versailles.
The treaty said that Germany was the only country responsible for WWI. Some people say that Germany was not responsible for WWI. After all, it started when a Serbian shot an Austrian. Some Germans believed that Germany had been made a scapegoat, forcing it to take the blame for the entire war.
The treaty also said that Germany would have to pay for all of the damage done to other countries. Germany’s size was reduced by 12.5%, resulting in a decrease in its population of 6,500,000. When the other countries took possession of German land, the people in it did not move. This made them "belong" to the countries that took over that land.
Many things were taken away because of the Treaty of Versailles. Germany lost 16.7% of its farmland, 12.5% of its livestock, and 10% of its factories because of the Treaty of Versailles. It reduced Germany’s trading, eliminated its navy, and made its army very small.
The treaty also allowed other countries to take away Germany’s colonies around the world. To see which countries took possession of which German land, please refer to the table below.
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Which Countries Took Possession of German Land?
France took away:
|[p|Provinces of Alsace |
|ic| |
|] | |
|[p|Provinces of Lorraine |
|ic| |
|] | |
|[p|German coal mines in the Saar Region for 15 years |
|ic| |
|] | |
Belgium took away:
|[p|Small areas of Eupen |
|ic| |
|] | |
|[p|Small areas of Malmèdy |
|ic| |
|] | |
|[p|Small areas of Moresńet |
|ic| |
|] | |
|[p|Small areas of St. Vith |
|ic| |
|] | |
Czechoslovakia took away:
|[p|Small border area near Troppau (now Opava) |
|ic| |
|] | |
Denmark took away:
|[p|Northern Schelswig |
|ic| |
|] | |
Poland took away:
|[p|Most of West Prussia |
|ic| |
|] | |
|[p|Much of the Posen (now Poznan) province |
|ic| |
|] | |
The Allies took away:
|[p|Germany’s Rhineland for 15 years |
|ic| |
|] | |
The League of Nations took away:
|[p|Danzig, (now Gdansk, Poland) |
|ic| |
|] | |
To see a map of Europe before the Treaty of Versailles, please refer to the one below.
|[pic] |
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The League of Nations
President Wilson’s main goal was to set up the League of Nations. This was a group of countries agreeing to keep the peace. The League of Nations was mainly going to be made up of the Allies of WWI. President Wilson thought that other nations would feel threatened by the League of Nations because they had already gone to war against those countries and lost. President Wilson had discussed these ideas in his Fourteen Points, which was a guide with fourteen ideas to make a peace settlement.
The other Allied leaders didn’t completely agree with President Wilson. Georges Clemenceau of France mainly wanted to hurt Germany’s economy, army, and land. David Lloyd George of the United Kingdom mainly wanted to leave Germany with enough supplies for trade, but not for war. The other Allies, especially Italy and Japan, were just interested in controlling Germany’s land and taking it for themselves.
Finally, the other countries gave in. They decided that the League of Nations was a good idea. President Wilson modified many of his points in order to win support for certain changes concerning the League of Nations, and he also modified them because many people disagreed with them. Due to this decision, many of Italy & Japan’s secret treaties, which President Wilson originally was against were allowed to stand, and Italy received part of Austria and Hungary. Japan received German colonies in the North Pacific Ocean and German holdings in China.
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A Land of New Boundaries
The Allies had a lot of trouble trying to redraw the boundaries of the countries bordering Germany. Finally, they thought of a way to divide up that land. They thought of everyone, except for the Germans. The Allies redrew the borders so that people who spoke the same language were part of the same country. For example, the area that had people that spoke French, became part of France. They did that with France, Switzerland, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Poland, the Netherlands, and Belgium. After dividing up all of that land, the pieces of Germany that remained became Germany.
Before the Treaty of Versailles, a part of Europe was known as the Austro- Hungarian Empire. As a result of the Allies’ decision to change boundaries based on languages spoken, this land was divided into Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary, and a part of Romania. Also, land that had been part of Russia became Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, East Prussia, and Poland, all of which Russia had once taken over and turned into territories of the Russian Empire. The Treaty of Versailles made Russia give back these lands.
Even though they won, some countries, like Japan and Italy, were upset about the treaty. Italy felt that it should have received more land than it got. Japan was given the German territories in the Pacific, but it wanted more land.
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Reactions and Thoughts of Revenge
In early May 1919, the Treaty of Versailles was shown to Germany. Germany was forced to agree to the treaty, or the Allies threatened to enforce the treaty by invading Germany. Many Germans were angry that the government agreed to the treaty, and they wanted revenge. German officials strongly disagreed with the treaty, but they were forced to accept it. German officials thought that the treaty would be much easier on them due to Wilson’s Fourteen Points.
Germany, and all of the major Allies except China and the United States, agreed to the treaty. Citizens of the United States didn’t approve of President Wilson’s agreement to let Germany be treated the generous way that it was. They thought that Germany should be punished even more for causing so much devastation around the world. In March 1920, the U.S. Senate refused to accept the Treaty of Versailles. Even though President Wilson helped set it up, the United States never joined the League of Nations. However, in August 1921, Germany and the United States created a separate peace agreement called the Treaty of Berlin.
The Treaty of Versailles caused Germany to go through a depression, a time when businesses and people lost a lot of money. Due to this depression, many people lost their jobs. People who could not find jobs joined the Communist and National Socialist parties. The National Socialist Party’s leader, Adolf Hitler, was gaining more and more power because the German people were upset that their government did little to help them and that the government agreed to the Treaty of Versailles. Many Germans were mad that Germany lost so much land because of the Treaty of Versailles, and it had to pay huge amounts of money to Allied countries. They were also mad because the treaty said that Germany alone caused WWI. Many Germans wanted revenge. This is when more Germans began to look up to Adolf Hitler and his National Socialist Party.
The United Nations: An Introduction for Students
http://www.un.org/cyberschoolbus/unintro/unintro3.htm
The predecessor:
The League of Nations
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The League of Nations was created right after the First World War. It originally was made up of 42 countries, 26 of which were non-European. At its largest, 57 countries were members of the League. The League was created because a number of people in France, South Africa, the UK and the US believed that a world organization of nations could keep the peace and prevent a repetition of the horrors of the 1914-18 war in Europe. An effective world body now seemed possible because communications were so much better and there was increasing experience of working together in international organizations. Coordination and cooperation for economic and social progress were becoming important.
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[pic]The League had two basic aims. Firstly, it sought to keep the peace through collective action. Disputes would be referred to the League's Council for negotiation. If needed, economic and then military force could be used. In other words, members worked to defend other members from being attacked. Secondly, the League aimed to promote international cooperation in economic and social affairs.
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The Covenant of the League of Nations begins...
|“In order to promote international cooperation and to achieve international peace and security by the |
|acceptance of obligations not to resort to war, by the prescription of open, just and honorable relations |
|between nations, by the firm establishment of the understandings of international law as the actual rule of |
|conduct among Governments, and by the maintenance of justice and a respect for all treaty obligations in the |
|dealings of organized peoples with one another, Agree to this Covenant of the League of Nations." |
The end of the League
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As the Second World War unfolded, it became clear that the League had failed in its goal of keeping the peace. The League had no military power of its own. It depended on its members' money and army; and its members were not willing to use economic or military punishments. Morals weren’t enough to keep countries from attacking one another.
Several Big Powers failed to support the League: the United States never joined; Germany was a member for only seven years from 1926 and the USSR for only five years from 1934; Japan and Italy both left the League in the 30s. The League then depended mainly on Britain and France, who were not willing to act forcefully. It was difficult for governments used to working on their own to cooperate with members of another organization.
History of the League of Nations
http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/FWWleague.htm
During the First World War several world leaders such as Woodrow Wilson and Jan Smuts, began promoting the need for an international organization to preserve peace and settle disputes. In September, 1916, Robert Cecil, a member of the British government, wrote a letter where he argued that civilization could survive only if it could develop an international system that would insure peace.
When peace negotiations began in October, 1918, Woodrow Wilson insisted that his Fourteen Points should serve as a basis for the signing of the agreement. This included the formation of the League of Nations.
The constitution of the League of Nations was adopted by the Paris Peace Conference in April, 1919. The League's headquarters were in Geneva and its first secretary-general was Sir Eric Drummond. The Covenant (Constitution) of the League of Nations called for collective security and the peaceful settlement of disputes. It was decided that any country that resorted to war would not be allowed to trade with other countries.
The main parts of the League of Nations were the General Assembly, the Council and the Secretariat. The General Assembly, which met once a year, was made of representatives of all the member states and decided on the organization's policy. The Council included four permanent members (Britain, France, Italy and Japan) and four (later nine) others elected by the General Assembly every three years. The Secretariat prepared the agenda and published reports of meetings.
As a result of the decision by the US Congress not to sign the Versailles Treaty, the United States never joined the League of Nations. Others joined but later left the organization: Brazil (1926), Japan (1933), Italy (1937). Germany was only a member from 1926 to 1933, and the Soviet Union from 1934 to 1940.
The League of Nations had no armed forces and had to rely on boycotts (sanctions) to control the behavior of member states. In January 1923 France occupied the Ruhr. Six months later Italy bombed the Greek island of Corfu. When the League of Nations discussed these events, the governments of France and Italy threatened to withdraw from the organization. As a result, the League of Nations decided not to take any action. Konni Zilliacus, a member of the Information Section of the League Secretariat, wrote to his friend Norman Angell: "I feel depressed and fed up. Who could have imagined things would turn out as badly as this?"
In 1924 the League of Nations was given a boost when James Ramsay MacDonald, Arthur Henderson and Edouard Herriot, leading politicians in Britain and France, visited Geneva in 1924. Hugh Dalton, wrote enthusiastically, "The League seemed to have come to life again, and to have gained a new significance."
The League of Nations also had success in preventing wars in the border disputes between Bulgaria-Greece (1925), Iraq-Turkey (1925-26) and Poland-Lithuania (1927) and in drug control, refugee work and famine relief.
In 1929 foreign ministers of all the main European nations attended meetings of the League of Nations. Mary Hamilton, a Labour Party delegate to the League of Nations wrote: "Geneva in 1929 and 1930 was a genuine International clearing-house of ideas... There was hard work, and there was goodwill."
The League of Nations faced a fresh crisis in September 1931 when the Japanese Army occupied large areas of Manchuria, a province of China. The Chinese government appealed to the League of Nations under Article 11 of the Covenant. China also appealed to the United States.
In March 1932 Japan renamed Manchuria as Manchukuo ("land of the Manchus"). Only Germany and Italy recognized the new state. The Lytton Report was published six months later. The report acknowledged that Japan had serious complaints against the Chinese Government. However, the report condemned the Japanese invasion of Manchuria and refused to recognize Manchukuo as an independent state. When the League adopted the report Japan resigned from the organization.
Konni Zilliacus, an official of the League of Nations, believed that Germany and Italy posed the greatest threat to world peace. He argued for the creation of an "inner ring" of states within the League of Nations, led by Britain, France and the Soviet Union. He also proposed the election of a new international debating chamber of the League of Nations.
In October 1935 Benito Mussolini sent in General Pietro Badoglio and the Italian Army into Ethiopia. The League of Nations condemned Italy's aggression and in November gave punishments. These included an attempt to ban countries from selling arms, rubber and some metals to Italy. Some political leaders in France and Britain opposed punishments arguing that it might persuade Mussolini to form an alliance with Adolf Hitler and Nazi Germany.
Over 400,000 Italian troops fought in Ethiopia. The poorly armed Ethiopians were no match for Italy's modern tanks and airplanes. The Italians even used mustard gas on the home forces and were able to capture Addis Ababa, the capital of the country, in May 1936, forcing Emperor Haile Selassie to flee to England.
In September 1938, Neville Chamberlain, the British prime minister, met Adolf Hitler at his home in Berchtesgaden. Hitler threatened to invade Czechoslovakia unless Britain supported Germany's plans to takeover the Sudetenland. After discussing the issue with the Edouard Daladier (France) and Eduard Benes (Czechoslovakia), Chamberlain informed Hitler that his proposals were unacceptable.
Benito Mussolini suggested to Adolf Hitler that one way of solving this issue was to hold a four-power conference of Germany, Britain, France and Italy.
The meeting took place in Munich on 29th September, 1938. Desperate to avoid war, and anxious to avoid a partnership with Joseph Stalin and the Soviet Union, Neville Chamberlain and Edouard Daladier agreed that Germany could have the Sudetenland. In return, Hitler promised not to make any further demands for land in Europe. Adolf Hitler, Neville Chamberlain, Edouard Daladier and Benito Mussolini now signed the Munich Agreement which transferred the Sudetenland to Germany. The League of Nations remained silent on the invasion.
Joseph Stalin now became concerned about the Soviet Union being invaded from the West. Stalin argued that Leningrad was only thirty-two kilometers from the Finnish border and its 3.5 million population, were vulnerable to fire from Nazi Germany. Stalin ordered the Red Army to invade on 30th November 1939. This time the League of Nations decided to take action and kicked the Soviet Union out of the group.
The League of Nations did not meet during the Second World War. In 1946 the responsibilities of the League of Nations was handed over to the United Nations.
Political Dictionary – League of Nations
http://www.answers.com/topic/league-of-nations
The League of Nations was established at the end of the First World War by the winning powers meeting at the Paris Peace Conference. Its strongest supporter was US President Woodrow Wilson. His own country's Senate refused to accept membership and the world's strongest state became isolationist. Of the other great powers only Great Britain and France were to be members throughout the League's existence. Germany, the Soviet Union, Japan, and Italy joined late or resigned, or did both.
The League was given the task of preventing conflict through a system called collective security. False hopes were raised that all war crimes would be prevented or war criminals effectively punished by the leading states in the League's establishment.
At all events, when 1931 Japan invaded Manchuria, Great Britain and France, the only League members at the time with strength, proved unwilling to act. Next, in 1935, Italy invaded Abyssinia. No other big powers had an interest in Abyssina’s safety. This was the deciding test case for the League. Great Britain and France had the ability to defeat Italy if matters came to an all-out war. The British government believed that they could not risk the loss of even part of their fleet in a war with Italy at a time when their land in the Far East were thought to be threatened by Japan and when the US administration was seen to be led by isolationists. Similarly, the French held that war with Italy for the sake of Abyssinia would be foolish at a time when all French forces were thought to be needed for a possible early showdown with Nazi Germany. Abyssinia was taken into the Italian empire in 1936. As a body for resisting international aggression the League had thus effectively fallen. It continued to exist without power until the end of the Second World War when it was replaced by the United Nations.
— David Carlton
Immigration Quota Act
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Background
Before these new immigration laws were in place, the average annual number of new immigrants into America was around 800,000. Almost two-thirds of these new-comers were from southern and eastern Europe. Most Americans did not like the "new immigrants" (the ones from southern and eastern Europe) because these people usually did not speak much English, held religious services in foreign languages, were not familiar with democracy, dressed differently, and brought the new political philosophies of communism, socialism, and anarchy with them. Many Americans feared these new ideas because they clashed with the American system.
During World War I, many Americans were in Europe fighting, so there were many job openings and employment opportunities. Immigrants quickly filled these positions, and employers were happy to have them since most of their normal workers were in Europe. These immigrants kept the factories running until the soldiers returned from the war, seeking to return to work. The immigrants, however, did not want to give up their new jobs. Furious that their jobs had been stolen from them, the soldiers along with other Americans proclaimed that the jobs should go to "real" Americans. This competition for jobs led to increased anti-foreignism among American citizens and the country's desire to stop the flow of immigrants.
Immigration Act of 1921
The Immigration Act of 1921 restricted the number of immigrants that could enter America each year. This Act allowed no more than 350,000 immigrants to arrive per year, or no more than 3% of the American population according to the census of 1910. This was good for the immigrants from southern and eastern Europe because they already had large numbers in America, so 3% of their population would be an ample amount of immigrants.
Immigration Act of 1924
Also known as the National Origins Act, the Immigration Act of 1924 reduced the annual movement of immigrants into the United States from 350,000 to 152,000 and from 3% of the existing population to 2%. While the Immigration Act of 1921 based the 3% allowance off of the census of 1910, the Immigration Act of 1924 based its 2% off the 1890 census. This seriously decreased the flow of immigrants because there were far fewer immigrants in America in 1890 than there were living in 1910. By combining this new national-origins base with the lower percentage of immigrant allowance, they stemmed the tide of immigrants into America. This act did not affect all immigrants equally. It completely banned all immigrants from Japan, causing mass "Hate America" riots to break out. On the other hand, Canadians and Latin Americans weren’t restricted by the quota act because their countries were nearby. This made immigrants from these countries available to fill empty job positions, but also made it easy to send them back to their home countries should the Americans get tired of them. Sources 1. Kennedy, D., Cohen, L., & Bailey, T. (2006). The American Pageant. Boston, NY: Houghton Mifflin Company. 2. Klopfenstein, Mark (2002). Lecture notes: American society in the 1920's. Retrieved February 22, 2007, from Mr. Klopfenstein's History Home. http://www.bv229.k12.ks.us/bvhs_klopfenstein/index.htm
U.S. Diplomatic History > 1921-1936
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/id/87718.htm
The Immigration Act of 1924 limited the number of immigrants allowed entry into the United States through a national origins quota (restriction). The quota provided immigration visas to two percent of the total number of people of each nationality in the United States as of the 1890 national census. It completely excluded immigrants from Asia.
In 1917, the U.S. Congress enacted the first widely restrictive immigration law. The fear over national security during World War I made it possible for Congress to pass this Act, and it included several important features that paved the way for the 1924 Act. The 1917 Act created a literacy test that required immigrants over 16 years old to demonstrate basic reading comprehension in any language. It also increased the tax paid by new immigrants upon arrival and allowed immigration officials to have more say in whom to exclude. Finally, the Act excluded from entry anyone born in a geographically defined "Asiatic Barred Zone" except for Japanese and Filipinos. In 1907, the Japanese Government had limited Japanese immigration to the U.S. in the Gentlemen's Agreement. The Philippines was an American colony, so its citizens were American nationals and could travel freely to the United States. China was not included in the Barred Zone, but the Chinese were already denied immigration visas under the Chinese Exclusion Act.
The literacy test alone was not enough to prevent most potential immigrants from entering, so members of Congress sought a new way to restrict immigration in the 1920s. Immigration expert and Republican Senator from Vermont William P. Dillingham introduced a measure to create immigration quotas, which he set at three percent of the total population of the foreign-born of each nationality in the United States as recorded in the 1910 census. This put the total number of visas available each year to new immigrants at 350,000. It did not, however, establish quotas of any kind for residents of the Western Hemisphere. President Wilson opposed the act, preferring a more liberal immigration policy, so he used the pocket veto to prevent its passage. In early 1921, the newly inaugurated President Warren Harding called Congress back to a special session to pass the law. In 1922, the act was renewed for another two years.
When the Congressional debate over immigration began in 1924, the quota system was so well-established that no one questioned whether to maintain it, but rather discussed how to adjust it. Though there were supporters of raising quotas and allowing more people to enter, the champions of restricting numbers triumphed. They created a plan that lowered the existing quota from three to two percent of the foreign born population. They also pushed back the year on which quota calculations were based from 1910 to 1890.
Another change to the quota altered the basis of the quota calculations. The quota had been based on the number of people born outside of the United States, or the number of immigrants in the United States. The new law traced the origins of the whole of the American population, including natural-born citizens. The new quota calculations included large numbers of people of British descent whose families were long resident in the United States. As a result, the percentage of visas available to individuals from the British Isles and Western Europe increased, but newer immigration from other areas like Southern and Eastern Europe was limited.
The 1924 Immigration Act also included a rule preventing from entry any alien who by race or nationality was ineligible for citizenship. Existing nationality laws dating from 1790 and 1870 excluded people of Asian heritage from naturalizing. As a result, the 1924 Act meant that even Asians not previously prevented from immigrating - the Japanese in particular - would no longer be admitted to the United States. Many in Japan were very offended by the new law. The Japanese government protested, but the law remained, resulting in an increase in existing tensions between the two nations. The U.S. Congress had decided that preserving the racial composition of the country was more important than promoting good ties with the Japanese empire.
The Act could have resulted in strained relations with some European countries as well, but these potential problems did not appear for several reasons. The global depression of the 1930s and World War II both served to decrease European emigration. When these crises had passed, emergency rules for the resettlement of displaced persons in 1948 and 1950 helped the United States avoid conflict over its new immigration laws.
Teacher Lessons/Resources
Exit Project Skill Based Lesson Plans
See attached PDF document.
Note Taking Templates included in PDF:
Pg. 19 – Web Design Note Template
Pg. 25 - Project Timeline Worksheet
Pg. 38 - Three Column Note Taking
Pg. 42 - Bibliography Reference Sheet
Pg. 48 - Written Document Analysis Worksheet
Lesson Plans on Imperialism: www.tfanyconnect.org UserName: karenembraza
Password: ireland7
Search for middle school Social Studies lesson plans; there are numerous samples and templates available.
Spanish-American War
NY Public Library Exhibit http://www.nypl.org/research/chss/epo/spanexhib/index.html Primary Source docs, Summaries and Lesson Plans http://www.smplanet.com/imperialism/toc.html Panama Canal
Primary Source Materials http://www.canalmuseum.com/ Smithsonian Presentation on the Panama Canal http://www.sil.si.edu/Exhibitions/Make-the-Dirt-Fly/blast-4.htm The Portsmouth Treaty
Photos, Book Excerpts http://www.seacoastnh.com/navyyard/1905treaty.html World War I
Timeline http://www.pbs.org/greatwar/ Primary Source Docs http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/historyonline/us32.cfm PowerPoint on the war– (Reference Chapter 22) http://wps.ablongman.com/long_nash_ap_6/0,7361,592970-,00.html Blank Maps for Imperialism http://wps.ablongman.com/wps/media/objects/579/592970/BlankMaps/World%20War%20I.gif League of Nations Photo Archive http://www.indiana.edu/~league/ The Great War: Evaluating the Treaty of Versailles
(Note to Corps Member: Feel free to use whichever pieces and portions of the lesson feel applicable. Don’t feel obligated to teach the lesson in its entirety, as you will not have time to do so.)
Introduction
Although at the postwar peace talks President Woodrow Wilson wished above all to prevent future wars, the Treaty of Versailles, which formally ended World War I, is widely considered to have contributed to the rise to power of the Nazi party in Germany. Was the Treaty of Versailles a legitimate and justified attempt by the victorious powers to ensure that Germany would never again pose a military threat? Or did the Treaty, as the Nazis and many other politicians in Germany claimed, place an unfair and unnecessarily punitive burden on Germany? Was the supposed unfairness of the Treaty a significant contributor to the rise of the Nazi party in Germany—or was it merely a convenient rhetorical tool for German politicians to exploit? If the unfairness of the Treaty were indeed a cause of fascism in Germany, how do we explain the rise of fascism in Italy (which fought on the side of the allies in World War I) or the existence of fascist movements in Britain, the Netherlands, and other Western democracies in the 1930s?
By studying a variety of primary sources, maps, and supporting documents concerning the post-war peace process, students will develop a context for evaluating whether the treaty was a viable, fair one, and for considering some of the complex questions this issue raises about the historical causality and responsibility. The lesson fits within a larger unit on World War I, and some prior knowledge of the causes and events of the war is assumed.
Guiding Questions:
What were the aims and motives of the victorious powers in drawing up the Treaty of Versailles? Was the Treaty a fair one? Was the German response justfied?
Learning Objectives
• To learn the motives and aims of the Treaty of Versailles • To learn the terms that the Treaty imposed on Germany • To consider how each country's unique wartime experience may have shaped its aims at the Peace Conference; to examine the different motives and aims of the United States and other allies such as France • To learn about Germany's reaction to the Treaty of Versailles • To discuss whether the terms of the Treaty were fair • To discuss whether the Treaty contributed to the rise to power of the Nazi Party in Germany
Preparing to Teach this Lesson
• Review Hitler's April 17, 1923 speech, available here as a downloadable PDF file, denouncing the treaty. • Review Articles 42-50 and 231-235, and skim Articles 159-213, of the Treaty of Versailles; the text is from the EDSITEment resource Great War Primary Documents Archive. Another webpage containing the text in its entirety, The Versailles Treaty, is available from the EDSITEment-reviewed from Internet Public Library, which has a page specifically devoted to World War I History. • Review background information on the treaty and the German reaction, available through two resources from the History Department at Colby College, and reviewed by the Center for the Liberal Arts, an EDSITEment resource: "Germany's Responsibility for the War" and "The Weimar Republic: the Treaty of Versailles". • Read background information on the treaty's place in the subsequent rise to power of the Nazis, available at the EDSITEment resource U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum: "Treaty of Versailles, 1919." The article points out that the Treaty was a useful rhetorical device for the Nazis and other right-wing parties, which could brandish it as evidence of the traitorous actions of democratic parties that had accepted the terms of the treaty. The article also makes the point that in the years following 1921, the date the Treaty took effect, the Treaty was altered in Germany's favor, and that "with the occupation of the Rhineland on March 7, 1936, all military restrictions (which had already been violated before Hitler's accession to power) became null and void." • Maps of Europe before, during, and after World War I are available from several sources listed on Internet Public Library: General Reference/Maps. Produced by the Department of History at the United States Military Academy, the Map Library contains these contrasting maps: Europe in 1914 and Europe in 1919 ; The World in 1914 and The World in 1919. A series of maps can also be found at The Versailles Treaty, such as Europe and Asia Minor in 1914 and Germany in 1919. • Besides teaching students about the contents of the Treaty of Versailles, this lesson raises challenging questions about historical causality and responsibility. Students have an innate sense of what is and isn't fair and may have strong feelings about the fairness (or not) of the Treaty. Provided in the Introduction above, and in activity 5 below, are some questions for discussion that may help your students think about—or rethink—the implications of the positions they take in activity 5.
Suggested Activities
1. Motives for the Treaty: the Trauma of World War I
2. Drawing Up the Treaty: France and the United States
3. Optional activity: A Treaty of the Victors
4. The Terms of the Treaty
5. The German Response
1. Motives for the Treaty: the Trauma of World War I
Begin by sharing with your students the enormous and unprecedented human costs of the Great War. This will give them a context for considering the motivations of the allied powers in imposing the Treaty of Versailles, and for judging whether or not the terms of the Treaty were justified. By comparing the numbers of casualties and total troops mobilized, students will also have a basis for understanding the differing positions taken by the countries that drew up the Treaty.
Begin by examining death and casualty tolls from France and the United States, respectively. For a brief look, students may use the Diagram: Deaths by Countries in Thousands at the Great War Primary Documents Archive. For a more in-depth look, with information not only on deaths, but on total casualties and total mobilized men, have students look at the diagram Casualties: First World War, produced by the Spartacus Educational Network in Great Britain, a link from Center for the Liberal Arts. Have students note not only the total deaths and casualties, but also particularly the percentage of casualties relative to total mobilized. Also have students examine photographs of destruction along the western front in France. The three sets of Before and After photographs from the Great War Primary Documents Archive will probably suffice, although you may also wish to have students include some or all of the following: Ruins of Vaux, Ruins of Cantigny, Ruins of Arras Cathedral, and Ruins of the Arras Hotel de Ville. What level of destruction do these pictures indicate? What are some emotions evoked when viewing these images? What happened to the originally charming and vibrant Village of Esnes? Why is it significant that major civic buildings such as the Courthouse (Palace of Justice), cathedral, and City Hall (Hotel de Ville) were destroyed? Can you envision what these buildings and towns may have looked like before the war? How long do you think it would take to rebuild these buildings and communities? How much do you think it would cost? Can a community ever really recover from such destruction? Ask students to speculate, based on this information, how France's goals for the postwar settlement might differ from U.S. goals. What might France fear? What would France probably want with respect to Germany? Why? Would those desires be reasonable? Why or why not? Why might the U.S. be able to take a more idealistic perspective?
2. Drawing Up the Treaty: France and the United States
Next have students read excerpts from President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points speech to Congress from the Great War Primary Documents Archive. Specifically, first have students read the last two paragraphs of Wilson's speech (the part before the actual enumeration of the points). What does Wilson say are the goals of the United States? What is his hope for the world and for the postwar talks? Then have students read the first paragraph right after the enumeration of the Fourteen Points. What is Wilson's stated attitude toward Germany? How would this attitude differ from France's? Again, in the context of the information from activity #1 above, why might the U.S. be more inclined than France to take an idealistic perspective?
3. Optional activity: A Treaty of the Victors
Have students write out a list, based on their knowledge, of what they believe would be the most important respective postwar goals for France, Germany, and the United States. Each country should have at least 5 items, ranked from most important to least important. (You may wish to start students out with one or two items, such as have Germany pay for the war or establish a peace-keeping body.) Break students into groups of three, each of whom represents one of these countries, and have students spend approximately 20-30 minutes attempting to negotiate an agreement centered around these goals. When time is up, discuss the process and share the various results. Were there any common goals? Were compromises made? Which country was most pleased with how the negotiations turned out? Most displeased? On balance, did each country feel it had achieved its most important goal? Were there any particular impasses or impediments to agreements?
Be sure to inform students that in reality, Germany was not represented at the settlement talks. Later in the lesson, after considering the real treaty, ask how Germany's presence might have altered the peace process. (An alternative activity would be to do the above activity with only France and the United States represented; this has the advantage of being closer to the historical reality.)
4. The Terms of the Treaty • Now have students begin to consider the actual terms of the peace treaty with respect to Germany. First have students analyze before and after maps of Europe and the world. (See Preparing to Teach section above for several options for maps to use in this activity.) How much European land did Germany lose? Which regions specifically? To which countries did this land go? What land worldwide was lost by Germany? To which countries did this land go? • Students should then read Sections III and IV (Articles 42-50) of the treaty for the terms pertaining to the Rhineland and the Saar Basin; these articles are in the treaty section Political Clauses For Europe. (Preparing to Teach section above for links to the treaty.) Have students locate these regions on a map. Why were these clauses probably inserted? What benefits did these clauses give France? Was it reasonable to establish the demilitarized Rhineland buffer zone? How would the terms regarding the Saar Basin affect the German economy? How would Germany probably react to these terms? • Next have students read the treaty for the terms pertaining to Germany's military, in the treaty section Military, Naval and Air Clauses. What were the terms for Germany? What sovereign powers did Germany lose? How might these clauses have satisfied France? How would Germany probably react? Have students discuss whether it is reasonable to disarm a former enemy belligerent. • Students should then read the treaty for the terms pertaining to Germany's war guilt and reparations, in the treaty section Reparations. First discuss the infamous "war guilt clause," Article 231. Why does it single out Germany and not the other Central Powers? Based on their knowledge (again, it is assumed that students will have already spent time learning the causes of the war), is this clause accurate? Does Germany warrant more responsibility than other countries? Do the Allies bear any responsibility? As preparation, for this discussion, you may wish to have students read the aforementioned background essays that discuss the extent of German guilt. (See Preparing to Teach section above for links to these essays.) Then discuss the sections on reparations, especially Articles 232-235. How much was Germany to pay? How might this affect the German economy?
5. The German Response • Have students read the German Reply Memorandum to the treaty, written by the German Foreign Minister Count Brockdorff-Rantzau, available here as a downloadable PDF file. Explain that Germany was allowed to fashion a reply to the treaty draft, but its terms were summarily rejected by the Allies. What objections does Germany raise to the treaty? Are these objections valid? Should the Allies have modified the treaty in any way to address these points? • Now have students read Hitler's April 17, 1923 speech, available here as a downloadable PDF file, denouncing the treaty. (Ideally students will already be familiar with the circumstances behind the Weimar Republic. If not, explain to students that the German Kaiser abdicated at the close of World War I, to be succeeded by a democratic republic known as the Weimar Republic. It was representatives of the Weimar Republic who signed the Versailles Treaty.) Discuss his speech. Why is Hitler so vitriolic concerning the Weimar Republic? What does he blame the Weimar Republic for? What other goals does he link to the elimination of the treaty? What imagery does he use? What actions is he alluding to at the end? How might this speech appeal to the emotions of the listener? Consider how the treaty may have contributed to the rise of Nazism, and by extension, World War II. Would Hitler have been able to give such a powerful speech or to find a receptive audience if the treaty had been different? • Was the German response to the Treaty of Versailles justified? Have students take a stand on whether the treaty was fair or unfair, with specific evidence to justify their ideas. This may be done through discussion, debate, or a written assignment.
Once students have had a chance to consider their positions on this question, discuss with your class some of the larger issues of causality and responsibility that are raised by this exercise. Some questions are: What are our sources for gauging the German response? Can we trust them? Might German politicians in the 1930s have had something to gain by exploiting the bitterness of defeat? If we believe that the terms of the treaty were unfair, does this mean that the allies bear responsibility in some fashion for subsequent developments in Germany? That the German response was justified?
You may also want to discuss questions raised in the Introduction, above, about other explanations for the appeal of fascism in Germany. Antisemitism was sometimes framed in terms of the supposed "unfair" advantages that Jewish bankers and merchants had taken of hardworking Germans (you can read more about antisemitism and the rise of fascism in Germany at the Holocaust Learning Center, a resource from the U.S. Holocaust Museum).
Extending the Lesson
• Have students research other postwar settlements, such as the peace terms of the Congress of Vienna after the Napoleonic Wars, and compare them to the Treaty of Versailles. Some sample questions to consider: What were the victors' goals at the Congress of Vienna? Were they different than the goals of the victors in 1919? Was the 1815 settlement a harsh one toward France? What happened to the government of France after the Napoleonic Wars, and how did this compare to what happened to the government of Germany? What territorial adjustments were made after the Napoleonic Wars, and how did these adjustments compare to the 1919 adjustments? The Congress of Vienna settlement is widely credited with keeping Europe out of a continent-wide war for 100 years (in fact, until World War I!). Why might it have been so successful at keeping the peace, whereas the Versailles settlement collapsed after only two decades? Students should conduct their own research for this expansion activity, but following are some basic background sites for students to begin with (all are linked to the EDSITEment resource, Internet Public Library): "Europe in Retrospect: International Order and Domestic Strife," produced by Britannia Encyclopedia Online; "Congress of Vienna," produced by Bartleby Encyclopedia Online; and "Congress of Vienna," a student essay from Chico High School in Chico, California. • Hold a discussion/debate or give a written assignment exploring what, if any, are the victor's obligations after a war is over. To what extent should a defeated wartime enemy be punished? Is harsh punishment practical? Worthwhile? legitimate?
Selected EDSITEment Websites
• Great War Primary Documents Archive [http://www.lib.byu.edu/%7Erdh/wwi] o President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points [http://www.lib.byu.edu/~rdh/wwi/1918/14points.html] o 28 June, 1919: The Peace Treaty of Versailles [www.lib.byu.edu/~rdh/wwi/versailles.html] o Before and After Photographs [http://raven.cc.ukans.edu/~kansite/ww_one/ photos/before.htm] o Photographs of Destruction [http://www.gwpda.org/photos/death.htm#destruct] [http://www.gwpda.org/photos/bin01/imag0048.jpg] [http://www.gwpda.org/photos/bin01/imag0037.jpg] [http://www.gwpda.org/photos/bin01/imag0017.jpg] o Diagram: Deaths by Countries in Thousands [http://lib.byu.edu/~rdh/wwi/memoir/docs/ statistics/diagrams/d62.gif] • Center for the Liberal Arts [http://www.virginia.edu/cla/] o "Germany's Responsibility for the War" [http://www.colby.edu/personal/r/rmscheck/GermanyC1.html] o "The Weimar Republic: the Treaty of Versailles" [http://www.colby.edu/personal/r/rmscheck/GermanyD1.html] o Casualties: First World War [http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/FWWdeaths.htm] • U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum [http://www.ushmm.org] o "Treaty of Versailles, 1919" [http://www.ushmm.org/topics/article.utp?id=10005425] • Internet Public Library [http://www.ipl.org] o The Versailles Treaty [http://history.acusd.edu/gen/text/versaillestreaty/vercontents.html] o Europe and Asia Minor in 1914 [http://history.acusd.edu/gen/WW2pics/81520.GIF] o Germany in 1919 [http://history.acusd.edu/gen/WW2pics/81523.GIF] o Europe in 1914 [http://www.dean.usma.edu/history/dhistorymaps/ WW1Pages/WWIs2.htm] o Europe in 1919 [http://www.dean.usma.edu/history/dhistorymaps/ WW1Pages/WWIs51.htm] o The World in 1914 [http://www.dean.usma.edu/history/web03/atlases/ great%20war/great%20war%20%20pages/great%20war%20map%2051.htm] o The World in 1919 [http://www.dean.usma.edu/history/dhistorymaps/ WW1Pages/WWIL52.htm] o "Europe in Retrospect: International Order and Domestic Strife" [http://britannia.com/history/euro/1/3_1.html] o "Congress of Vienna" [http://www.bartleby.com/65/vi/Vienna-C.html] o "Congress of Vienna" [http://www.pvhs.chico.k12.ca.us/~bsilva/ projects/congress/vienessy.html]
The Debate in the United States over the League of Nations: League of Nations Basics
http://edsitement.neh.gov/view_lesson_plan.asp?id=476
(Note to Corps Member: Feel free to use whichever pieces and portions of the lesson feel applicable. Don’t feel obligated to teach the lesson in its entirety, as you will not have time to do so.)
Lesson One of Curriculum Unit:
The Debate in the United States over the League of Nations
Introduction
American foreign policy continues to resonate with the issues surrounding the debate over U.S. entry into the League of Nations-collective security versus national sovereignty, idealism versus pragmatism, the responsibilities of powerful nations, the use of force to accomplish idealistic goals, the idea of America. Understanding the debate over the League and the consequences of its ultimate failure provides insight into international affairs in the years since the end of the Great War and beyond.
In this lesson, students read the words and listen to the voices of some central participants in the debate over the League of Nations.
Note: This lesson may be taught either as a stand-alone lesson or as part of the curriculum unit, The Debate in the United States Over the League of Nations. This curriculum unit may serve as a sequel to the complementary EDSITEment lesson U.S. Entry into World War I: A Documentary Chronology.
Guiding Question:
What was Woodrow Wilson's role in and vision for peace and the League of Nations after World War I?
Learning Objectives
After completing the lessons in this unit, students will be able to: • Describe Wilson's concepts for peace and the League of Nations and efforts to foster American support for it.
Share with the class the card The League of Nations: A Pictorial Study on the PBS website Woodrow Wilson, a link from the EDSITEment resource American Memory.
Guiding Discussion Questions:
• Why is Wilson pictured at the center of the card? • Look at the text surrounding Wilson's image. What is its significance? • Why is the Fourteenth Point printed at the bottom of the card? XIV. A general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike. • The League of Nations printed this card. How might the card's contents and design serve the interests of the League?
Review President Wilson's Fourteen Points (found within the text of Wilson's January 8, 1918, address to a joint session of Congress) on the EDSITEment resource Great War Primary Documents Archive.
Guiding Discussion Questions:
• Which points were about specific territorial issues in Europe and elsewhere? • Review points 1-5 and 14: I. Open treaties II. Freedom of navigation upon the seas III. Removal of economic barriers IV. Reduction of arms V. Free, open-minded, and absolutely impartial adjustment of all colonial claims XIV. (See above.) • Which, if any, would be of little benefit/great benefit to powerful nations like the U.S.? • Which, if any, would be of little benefit/great benefit to weaker nations? • Which, if any, would likely be regarded as taking away some of the power of the U.S. as a sovereign nation?
Now share with students The Covenant and Members of the League of Nations on the EDSITEment-reviewed website Links to the Past.
Guiding Discussion Questions:
• Which nations were not members of the League? • What were the basic tenets of the Covenant? (If desired, look at the complete text of the Covenant of the League of Nations available on the PBS website Woodrow Wilson, a link from the EDSITEment resource American Memory.) • Look at the introduction to the Covenant. Compare it to the Fourteenth Point. THE HIGH CONTRACTING PARTIES, In order to promote international co-operation and to achieve international peace and security by the acceptance of obligations not to resort to war, by the prescription of open, just and honorable relations between nations, by the firm establishment of the understandings of international law as the actual rule of conduct among Governments, and by the maintenance of justice and a scrupulous respect for all treaty obligations in the dealings of organized peoples with one another, agree to this Covenant of the League of Nations.
Students wanting more detail about the origins and History of the League of Nations can read this brief essay on From Revolution to Reconstruction, a link from the EDSITEment-reviewed website American Studies at the University of Virginia.
Assessment
In writing or through oral response to questions, students should be able to describe President Wilson's role in creating the League of Nations. They should understand the basic issues covered in Wilson's Fourteen points, and compare those with the tenets in the Covenant of the League of Nations.
Selected EDSITEment Websites
American Memory [http://memory.loc.gov/]
o PBS History [http://www.pbs.org/aboutpbs/] o Woodrow Wilson (American Experience) [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/wilson/index.html] o Wilson—A Portrait: The League of Nations [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/wilson/portrait/wp_league.html] o Wilson's Fourteen Points [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/wilson/filmmore/fm_14points.html] o The Covenant of the League of Nations (Signed June 28, 1919) [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/wilson/filmmore/fm_nations.html] • American Studies at the University of Virginia [http://xroads.virginia.edu/] o From Revolution to Reconstruction [http://odur.let.rug.nl/~usa/index.htm] o History of the League of Nations [http://odur.let.rug.nl/~usa/E/league/leaguexx.htm] • Great War Primary Documents Archive [http://www.lib.byu.edu/~rdh/wwi/ ] o President Wilson's Fourteen Points [http://www.lib.byu.edu/~rdh/wwi/1918/14points.html] • Links to the Past [http://www.cr.nps.gov/] o The Covenant and Members of the League of Nations [http://www.cr.nps.gov/nr/twhp/wwwlps/lessons/14wilson/14visual2.htm]
Exit Project
NYC Institute 2009
Table of Contents
1. Description of Project Pg. 3
2. Expectations of the Project Pp. 4-5
3. Project Rubric Pp. 6-7
4. Student Research Packet Pp. 8-40
a. Spanish-American War Pp. 9-12 b. Panama Canal Pp. 13-16 c. Portsmouth Treaty Pp. 17-19 d. Roosevelt Corollary Pp. 20-21
e. Treaty of Versailles Pp. 22-29
f. League of Nations Pg. 31-36
g. Quota Act of 1924 Pp. 37-39
5. Teacher Resources and Lesson Plans Pp. 41-52
Please note anything in red must be erased before you print for students.
I. Description of Global Power and Perceptions Project.
Scholars, during the next several weeks you are going to be working on a project that lets you investigate how American power grew and expanded. You’ll also
Below is a list of seven topics that we have collected materials and resources for you to research. Due to limited time at summer school you will not have time to gather materials and so we have already done this portion of research for you.
TEACHERS: These are suggestions however you may insert your own events as you see fit and as you find resources for the project.
Global Power and Perceptions Topics:
1) Spanish-American War
2) Panama Canal
3) Portsmouth Treaty
4) Roosevelt Corollary and Monroe Doctrine
5) Treaty of Versailles
6) League of Nations
7) Quota Act of 1924 II. Expectations of the Project
TEACHER: You may add to the list below/adjust the outline. These are the following requirements for the Global Perceptions Project
1) A five paragraph essay with. • An introduction explaining how events in the early late 19th-early 20th centuries affected opinions of the US abroad • Three body paragraphs, each focused on a different topic or event that changed global viewpoints about the US. • A conclusion describing the lasting impact of US imperialism
Each body paragraph should include….. • a description of each topic/event • an explanation of how each topic/event increased or decreased US power. • an explanation of how each event changed at least one other country’s viewpoint of the US
2) Poster board that includes:
• One visual and one written document about each topic event (six total; at least three of the six should be primary source documents) • A caption of each document explaining how the related event demonstrates US imperialism and how the event changed at l l east one other country’s perceptions (viewpoints) of the US
3) 5-7 minute oral presentation that includes a short summary of each of the three body paragraphs
**All elements of the project will be graded on a project based rubric.
Timeline:
|Time |Task to be completed |
|Week 3 |Begin Exit Project and research of imperial events. |
|July | |
|Week 4 |Continue research and note-taking |
|July |1st draft of writing completed by the end of the week. |
|Week 5 |Edit and finalize writing. |
|July |Choose documents to use on poster board. |
| |Put poster board together for presentation. |
| |Practice/Rehearse presentation. |
|Last day of Summer School |Present completed exit project to the rest of the class. |
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Student Research Packet
Spanish American War
http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/stream/faq45-11.htm
Spanish-American War 1898
On the night of 15 February l898 the battleship USS Maine was shattered by an explosion which sent the ship and two-thirds of her crew to the bottom of Havana harbor. Supported by wide-spread sympathy for those who were seeking Cuban independence from Spain's colonial rule, the Maine tragedy forced the already strained Spanish-American relations to the breaking point, causing a short war quickly decided by two naval battles.
On 1 May the U.S. Pacific Squadron under Commodore George Dewey steamed into Manila Bay, Philippine Islands, and destroyed the Spanish fleet. Two months later, Admiral William Sampson repeated with a victory over the Spanish in a running battle off Santiago, Cuba.
In addition to Sampson and Dewey's crushing victories, naval operations included blocking the Cuban coast, bombarding Spanish forts at San Juan, Puerto Rico by battleship USS Iowa., armored cruiser USS New York and other ships, and gunfire support of Marine and Army landings in Cuba and Puerto Rico. America emerged from the Spanish-American War as a major naval power.
4 Bronze stars 1. Battle of Manila Bay (1 May 1898) 2. Pacific Ocean operation 3. Battle of Santiago (3 July 1898) 4. Atlantic/Caribbean operations
Remember the Maine
The battleship Maine drifted lazily at its mooring. Although the Havana night was moonless, the Maine's gleaming white hull -- longer than a football field -- contrasted against the blackness of the sea and sky. Smoke wisped from its two mustard-colored funnels. Random lights sparkled from its portholes and its bridge. In the captain's cabin, Charles Sigsbee sat at a table writing a letter to his wife. The trouble in Cuba, he wrote, would soon be over. The new Spanish governor of the island seemed to have the situation under control. During the three weeks that the Maine had been in Havana, Captain Sigsbee had seen no sign of Cuban rebels. He'd entertained the Spanish officers in his mess hall, and he and his staff had been entertained by the local officials.
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General Fitzhugh Lee
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Capt. Charles D. Sigsbee, 1898
Even Fitzhugh Lee, the American diplomat, seemed optimistic. A month earlier the old general (Lee had commanded a cavalry division under his uncle Robert E. in the Civil War) had summoned a battleship to "protect American interests." Although the Maine was only a second-class battleship, it was the largest ship ever to enter Havana harbor. To the Cubans, it was a floating American fortress right in their capital city. Aboard the Maine, "taps" sounded at ten minutes past nine. Captain Sigsbee describes what happened next.
“I laid down my pen and listened to the notes of the bugle, which were singularly beautiful in the oppressive stillness of the night. . . . I was enclosing my letter in its envelope when the explosion came. It was a bursting, rending, and crashing roar of immense volume, largely metallic in character. It was followed by heavy, ominous metallic sounds. There was a trembling and lurching motion of the vessel, a list to port. The electric lights went out. Then there was intense blackness and smoke.
The situation could not be mistaken. The Maine was blown up and sinking. For a moment the instinct of self-preservation took charge of me, but this was immediately dominated by the habit of command.
Captain Sigsbee managed to reach the deck, now slanted down sharply toward the submerged bow. He climbed aft toward the only part of the ship that was not awash. Fires had broken out all over the vessel, and they lit the harbor in an eerie red glow. In Havana lights began to shine from windows that had just been smashed by the blast. Most of the crew had been asleep in their berths at the forward part of the ship, which was already at the bottom of the harbor. The stern sunk more slowly. Crews from nearby ships manned lifeboats to rescue the surviving crewmen of the Maine. "Chief among them," Sigsbee wrote, "were the boats from the Alfonso XII. The Spanish officers and crews did all that humanity and gallantry could compass." Reluctantly, Captain Sigsbee abandoned the Maine, which continued to burn and explode throughout the night.
The twisted, burnt wreckage of the Maine 's stern and bridge was still above water in the morning. It remained there for years. Two hundred fifty-four sailors were dead, and fifty-nine were wounded. Eight of the wounded later died. The navy conducted an investigation into the cause of the disaster, but it never discovered who was responsible for the explosion.
Yellow Journalism
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Joseph Pulitzer
Drawing of "The Yellow Kid"
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The World
Download a movie of the World being delivered.
The American press, however, had no doubts about who was responsible for sinking the Maine. It was the cowardly Spanish, they cried. William Randolph Hearst's New York Journal even published pictures. They showed how Spanish spies had attached an underwater mine to the Maine and had exploded it from shore. As one of the few sources of public information, newspapers had reached great influence and importance. Newspaper owners, such as Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer of the World, viciously competed for their reader's attention. They were determined to reach a daily circulation of a million people, and they didn't mind making up stories in order to reach their goal. They competed in other ways as well. The World was the first newspaper to introduce colored comics, and the Journal immediately copied it. The two papers often printed the same comics under different titles. One of these involved the adventures of "The Yellow Kid," a little boy who always wore a yellow gown. Since color presses were new in the 1890s, the finished product was not always perfect. The colors, especially the Yellow Kid's costume, often smeared. Soon people were calling the World, the Journal, and other papers like them "the yellow press." A minor revolt in Cuba against the Spanish colonial government provided a colorful topic. For months now the papers had been painting in graphic detail the horrors of Cuban life under Spanish rule. The Spanish had confined many Cubans to concentration camps. The press called them "death camps." Wild stories with screaming headlines -- Spanish Cannibalism, Inhuman Torture, Amazon Warriors Fight For Rebels -- flooded the newsstands. Newspapers sent hundreds of reporters, artists, and photographers south to recount Spanish attacks. The journalists, including such notables as author Stephen Crane and artist Frederick Remington, found little to report on when they arrived.
"There is no war," Remington wrote to his boss. "Request to be recalled." [pic]
In the 1890s Remington's boss, William Randolph Hearst, sent a cable in reply: "Please remain. You create the pictures, I'll create the war." Hearst was true to his word. For weeks after the Maine disaster, the Journal devoted more than eight pages a day to the story. Not to be outdone, other papers followed Hearst's lead. Hundreds of editorials demanded revenge for the Maine. Many Americans agreed. Soon a rallying cry could be heard everywhere -- in the papers, on the streets, and in the halls of Congress: "Remember the Maine! To hell with Spain."
Effects of the Spanish American War
http://www.military.com/Resources/HistorySubmittedFileView?file=history_spanishamericanwar.htm
The United States made its first step toward imperialism with its role in the Spanish-American War, a conflict that lasted less than four months.
The Spanish-American War began during the Cuban Revolution of 1895. The U.S. government didn’t take sides at first, but became concerned when the Spanish Governor began forcing thousands of citizens into concentration camps while his forces destroyed the countryside. Because of American business interests on the island and sympathy for the Cuban insurrectos, relations between the U.S. and Spain grew worse. Biased U.S. newspapers, in the first major example of "yellow journalism," exaggerated the attacks committed against the Cubans, and public opinion called for the U.S. to pressure Spain into granting Cuba its independence.
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At approximately 9:40 p.m. on the evening of February 15, 1898, the battleship USS Maine exploded in Havana Harbor. The U.S. Navy and Marine Corps suffered 267 casualties. Although the true cause of the explosion has never been determined, the Spanish government was held responsible. After unsuccessful talks lasting almost four months, President McKinley asked Congress for a declaration of war on April 11, 1898. Two weeks later, war between the United States and Spain was official.
The major battles of the war took place in the Spanish colonies of the Philippine Islands, Cuba, and Puerto Rico. In the Philippines, the Spanish were easily defeated in the naval Battle of Manila Bay on May 1. A short time later the U.S. Army landed on the island, bringing it under American control. The campaign in the Caribbean was initially unsuccessful, as troops were ill-equipped and poorly supplied. The Marines came ashore at Guantanamo, Cuba, on June 10, but it took another 12 days for the Army to land a force. Nevertheless, by July 17, the Spanish had surrendered.
A week later, a United States expedition landed in Puerto Rico. Within three days, most of the island was under American control. On August 1, a cease fire was declared. On December 10, 1898, the United States and Spain signed the Treaty of Paris, officially ending the war, which had lasted less than 100 days.
As a result of what Secretary of State John Hay called "a splendid little war," the United States emerged from the conflict as a world power. Cuba was owned by America until 1903 and Guantanamo remains a U.S. Navy base. The U.S. also gained control of Puerto Rico and Guam, and both remain affiliated today. The Philippines were purchased from Spain for twenty million dollars. As a direct result of the war, the United States also annexed Hawaii, Wake Island and several of the Samoan Islands. Spain's colonial empire was no more, and the U.S. had become a major military power with a two-ocean navy.
For the U.S., gaining a large colonial empire did not come without costs. Filipinos, tired of their colonial rule by Spain and hoping for independence, disliked U.S. control. A revolt broke out in the Philippines, and on February 4, 1899, the U.S. undertook a campaign to end the revolt. Deaths in this guerilla war mounted to over four times that of the Spanish-American War. The Philippine Revolt lasted until July 4, 1902, when President Theodore Roosevelt declared the Philippines pacified. Like Vietnam, American citizens were not concerned about this undeclared war and no parades were held for the returning troops. The Philippines achieved independence shortly after World War II.
Timeline: Panama
A chronology of key events: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/country_profiles/1229333.stm 1502 - Spanish explorer Rodrigo de Bastidas visits Panama, which was home to Cuna, Choco, Guaymi and other native peoples.
|[|[pic] |
|p|Panama City grew rapidly during years of |
|i|canal construction |
|c|Old city founded in 1519 |
|]|Population (metro): 1.14 million |
1519 - Panama becomes Spanish Vice-royalty of New Andalucia (later New Granada).
1821 - Panama becomes independent of Spain, but joins the confederacy of Gran Colombia, which also comprises Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia.
1830 - Panama becomes part of Colombia following the collapse of Gran Colombia.
1846 - Panama signs treaty with US allowing it to build a railway across the isthmus (a narrow strip of land connecting two continents)
1880s - France attempts to build a canal linking the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, but fails due to financial difficulties and the death of more than 20,000 workers from tropical diseases.
Independence, building the canal
1903 - Panama splits from Colombia and becomes fully independent. US buys rights to build Panama Canal and is given control of the Canal Zone.
|[|[pic] |
|p|US controlled the Panama Canal for almost a |
|i|century |
|c|Length: 65 km (40 miles) |
|]|15 August 1915: Official opening |
| |1 January 2000: Control passes to Panama by |
| |treaty |
| |[pic] |
| |2000: Thousands celebrate Panama Canal |
| |handover |
| |On This Day 1978: Carter wins Panama Canal |
| |battle |
1914 - Panama Canal completed.
1939 - Panama stops being a US protectorate.
1968-81 - General Omar Torrijos Herrera, the National Guard chief, overthrows the elected president and imposes a dictatorship.
1977 - US agrees to transfer the canal to Panama as from 31 December 1999.
1981 - Torrijos dies in plane crash.
1983 - Former intelligence chief and one-time US Central Intelligence Agency informant Manuel Noriega becomes head of the National Guard, builds up the size of the force, which he renames the Panama Defence Forces, and greatly increases its power over Panama's life including the canal.
1988 - US charges Noriega with drug smuggling; Noriega declares state of emergency in the wake of a failed coup.
US invades
1989 - Noriega declares "state of war" in the face of increased threats by Washington. US invades Panama, pulling out Noriega and replacing him with Guillermo Endara.
1991 - Parliament approves reforms, including destroying the standing army; privatisation begins.
1992 - US court finds Noriega guilty of drug offences and sentences him to 40 years imprisonment, to be served in a US prison.
|[|[pic] |
|p|Military leader Manuel Noriega was ousted by|
|i|the US |
|c|[pic] |
|]|2000: No parole for Noriega |
| |Noriega fails to stop extradition |
1999 - Mireya Moscoso becomes Panama's first woman president.
1999 December - Panama takes full control of the Panama Canal, ending nearly 100 years of American control over one of the world's most strategic waterways.
2000 - Moscoso announces creation of a panel to investigate crimes committed while military governments were in power between 1968 and 1989.
2002 January - President Moscoso sets up a commission to investigate corruption. The move follows large street protests.
2002 April - Panama removed from international list of uncooperative tax havens after promising to make its tax system more transparent.
2003 September - National strike over management of social security fund paralyses public services. More than 40 hurt in clashes.
|[pic] |
|Fireworks in Panama City mark 100 years of |
|independence |
2004 May - Martin Torrijos, son of former dictator Omar Torrijos, wins presidential elections.
2004 November - Panama Canal earns record revenues of $1 billion for the financial year.
Canal upgrade
2006 October - Voters choose to back a $5.2 billion plan to upgrade the Panama Canal. The scheme aims to double the number of ships the waterway can hold.
2006 December - Panama and the US agree on a free trade deal.
2007 September - Work to widen Panama Canal begins.
2008 February - Fatal shooting of union leader triggers violent clashes between police and construction workers in Panama City.
Panama Canal – History and International Status
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/440784/Panama-Canal
The Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty gave the United States the right to act in the entire 16-km- (10-mile-) wide, ocean-to-ocean Canal Zone as “if it were the ruler.” Thus, the Canal Zone became a foreign colony that divided Panama, despite Theodore Roosevelt’s declaration in 1906 that no such result was intended. The Canal Zone was administered by an American governor appointed by the U.S. president. In order to guarantee operation of the canal in the event of war, U.S. military units were stationed in the Canal Zone.
Some of the harsher effects of the 1903 treaty were softened by other treaties, mostly those of 1936 and 1955. The United States gave up its claimed right to acquire additional lands and waters adjacent to the canal, granted Panamanian control over the ports at Colón and Panama City, and brought the wages of Panamanians employed in the Canal Zone closer to the level of Americans. But the Panamanians continued to press for more changes, including full control over the canal. After years of talks and compromise, agreement was reached between the two governments in 1977. The Panama Canal Treaty was signed on September 7 of that year by General Omar Torrijos Herrera of Panama and President Jimmy Carter of the United States. It ended all earlier treaties between the United States and Panama concerning the canal and ended the Canal Zone. The treaty recognized Panama as the only leader in the former Canal Zone, but it gave the United States the right to continue managing, operating, and maintaining the canal and to use lands and waters necessary for those purposes during a transition period of 20 years covered by the agreement. The treaty went into effect on October 1, 1979, and expired on December 31, 1999.
The 1977 treaty was supported by a Neutrality Treaty that also went into effect in 1979 but has no end date. Under the Neutrality Treaty the United States and Panama guarantee that the canal will always be neutral, with tolls and access for all nations; U.S. and Panamanian warships, get faster passage. No nation other than Panama may operate the canal or have a military force within Panamanian territory. The United States, reserved the right to use military force, to keep the canal open; this was, in part, the rationale behind the U.S. military intervention in Panama in
Wayne D. BrayBurton L. GordonWilliam E. Worthington, Jr.
Treaty of Portsmouth
http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/history/A0839843.html
Portsmouth, Treaty of, 1905, treaty ending the Russo-Japanese War. It was signed at the Portsmouth Naval Base, New Hampshire, on Sept. 5, 1905. Talks leading up to the treaty began in the spring of 1905 when Russia had suffered severe defeats and Japan was having monetary problems. Both nations expressed a desire for peace. Germany, the United States, and Great Britain were valuable in forcing the two countries to resolve the dispute with each other. However, the United States and Britain demanded promises from Japan before smoothing the way for the treaty. President Theodore Roosevelt demanded that Japan follow the Open Door policy in Manchuria and return the region to China. In the Taft-Katsura agreement of July, 1905, Roosevelt agreed to Japanese leadership in Korea in return for American freedom of action in the Philippines. Great Britain had the Anglo-Japanese treaty extended to cover all of East Asia and in return also gave Japan a free hand in Korea. Under the terms of the Portsmouth agreement, Russia recognized Korea's independence and the interests of Japan in Korea. Russia also agreed to place Manchuria under the rule of China, and all foreign troops were to be removed. The railway lines in South Manchuria, built by Russia, were given to Japan without payment.
The Liaodong peninsula (see Liaoning), containing the ports of Dalian and Port Arthur was turned over to Japan, as was the southern part of the island of Sakhalin. Japan also gained fishing rights in the waters near the Russian Far East. The Treaty of Portsmouth marked the decline of Russian power in East Asia and the growth of Japan as the strongest power in the area.
The Treaty of Portsmouth & the Russo-Japanese War, 1904-1905 http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/ip/87725.htm The Treaty of Portsmouth ended the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05. The negotiations took place in August in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, and were led by U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt. The final agreement was signed in September of 1905, and it confirmed the Japanese presence in south Manchuria and Korea and gave the southern half of the island of Sakhalin to Japan.
By 1904, Russia and Japan had endured several years of disputes over control of Manchuria. The Russians had entered the region during the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-95 and, along with Germany and France, was a part of the "Triple Intervention" that forced Japan to give up its demands for ports in South Manchuria and the Liaodong Peninsula in the wake of its victory in China. Instead, Russia moved into the area and took control of Port Arthur, an important warm water port. A Japanese attempt to stage an overthrow in nearby Korea was stopped in part by the Russian presence in the region, and the two countries’ different interests appeared more and more likely to clash.
In 1904, the Japanese attacked the Russian fleet at Port Arthur before the formal declaration of war was received in Moscow, surprising the Russian navy and earning an early victory. Over the course of the next year, the two forces clashed in Korea and the Sea of Japan, with the Japanese scoring major, but costly, victories. War deaths were high on both sides. At the battle over Mukden, the Russians lost 60,000 soldiers and the Japanese lost 41,000 soldiers. The military costs were high as well. A Russian fleet made the long trip from the Baltic Sea around Africa and India, only to be half destroyed by the Japanese upon its arrival in Northeast Asia. By 1905, the combination of these losses and the economic cost of paying for the war led both countries to seek an end to the war.
The Japanese asked U.S. President Roosevelt to create a peace agreement, and representatives of the two nations met in Portsmouth, New Hampshire in 1905. For the sake of maintaining the balance of power and equal economic opportunity in the region, Roosevelt preferred that the war end on terms that left both Russia and Japan a role to play in Northeast China. Though excited by the Japanese military victories, Roosevelt worried about the consequences to American interests if Japan managed to drive Russia out entirely.
The talks centered on using ports and territories in Manchuria and Korea, who had control of Sakhalin Island, and the question of who was responsible for paying war costs. The goals of Japan’s representative were control in Korea and South Manchuria, then the payment of war costs and control of Sakhalin Island. The Russians wanted to maintain Sakhalin Island, refused to pay a war costs to the Japanese, and hoped to keep their ships in the Pacific.
When negotiations failed to move ahead, Roosevelt stepped in with the proposal that Russia "buy back" the northern part of Sakhalin from Japanese control. The Russians insisted that they would not pay any amount of money and that the territory ought to be theirs. After long internal debate, Japan eventually agreed to take only the southern half of the island, without any kind of payment. They didn’t have a strong enough victory to fight on this point.
The Treaty gave Japan control of Korea and much of South Manchuria, including Port Arthur and the railway that connected it with the rest of the region, along with the southern half of Sakhalin Island; Russian power shrunk in the region, but Russia was not required to pay Japan's war costs. Because neither nation had enough money to continue the war easily, both were forced to compromise in the terms of the peace. Still, the Japanese public felt they had won the war, and they considered the lack of payment to be offensive. There was a brief outbreak of protests and rioting in Tokyo when the terms of the agreement were made public. Similarly, the Russian people were also upset, angry about giving up half of Sakhalin.
Throughout the war and the peace talks, American public opinion largely sided with Japan. Believing that the Japanese were fighting a "just war" against Russian attacks, and that the island nation was committed to the Open Door Policy of trade, the American people were excited to support it. This sense did not really change over the course of the talks, in spite of the best efforts of the representative to improve the press coverage of his nation's position.
Competition between Japan and the US grew over the years that followed. At the same time, Japanese relations with Russia improved after the treaty. Although the actual importance of Roosevelt's mediation and personal pressure on the leadership in Moscow and Tokyo to the final agreement is unclear, he won the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts in helping the talks and pushing toward peace.
Theodore Roosevelt's Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine (1905) http://www.usnews.com/usnews/documents/docpages/document_page56.htm European involvement in Latin America became an issue in U.S. foreign policy when European governments began to use force to pressure several Latin American countries to repay their debts. For example, British, German, and Italian gunboats blocked Venezuela’s ports in 1902 when the Venezuelan government couldn’t pay its debts to other countries. Many Americans worried that European involvement in Latin America would destroy their country’s traditional leadership in the region.
To keep other powers out, President Theodore Roosevelt issued his corollary. "Chronic wrongdoing . . . may in America, as elsewhere, ultimately require intervention by some civilized nation," he announced in his annual message to Congress in December 1904, "and in the Western Hemisphere the following of the United States to the Monroe Doctrine may force the United States, cases of such wrongdoing, to the exercise of an international police power."
Roosevelt tied his policy to the Monroe Doctrine, and it was also consistent with his foreign policy of “walk softly, but carry a big stick.” Roosevelt stated that in keeping with the Monroe Doctrine, the United States could exercise "international police power" to put an end to unrest or wrongdoing in the Western Hemisphere. The Monroe Doctrine had been sought to prevent European intervention in the Western Hemisphere, but now the Roosevelt Corollary allowed American intervention throughout the Western Hemisphere. In 1934, Franklin D. Roosevelt eliminated the Roosevelt Corollary and established his Good Neighbor policy within the Western Hemisphere.
Roosevelt Corollary and Monroe Doctrine - World Affairs, December 6, 1904
http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1449.html
A developing crisis in the Dominican Republic, where the government stopped payments on its debts of more than $32 million to other nations, caused President Theodore Roosevelt to revise the Monroe Doctrine. First advanced in May 1904 and later expanded in his annual message to Congress in December, Roosevelt stated what would become known as his corollary (extension of) the Monroe Doctrine.
This change in policy was necessary because of a desire to avoid having European powers come to the Western Hemisphere for the purpose of collecting debts. It was feared that those nations might come to get their money, but remain to occupy other nations. This possibility was especially unwelcome at this time when the United States was pushing full steam ahead with the construction of the canal in Panama.
Roosevelt felt that the United States had a “moral mandate” to enforce proper behavior among the nations of Latin America, stating:
It is not true that the United States feels any land hunger or entertains any projects as regards the other nations of the Western Hemisphere save such as are for their welfare. All that this country desires is to see the neighboring countries stable, orderly, and prosperous. Any country whose people conduct themselves well can count upon our hearty friendship. If a nation shows that it knows how to act with reasonable efficiency and decency in social and political matters, if it keeps order and pays its obligations, it need fear no interference from the United States. Chronic wrongdoing, or an impotence which results in a general loosening of the ties of civilized society, may in America, as elsewhere, ultimately require intervention by some civilized nation, and in the Western Hemisphere the adherence of the United States to the Monroe Doctrine may force the United States, however reluctantly, in flagrant cases of such wrongdoing or impotence, to the exercise of an international police power.
The Monroe Doctrine had first been made to keep European nations out of Latin America, but the Roosevelt corollary was used as a reason for U.S. intervention in Latin America.
Public response in the United States favored the treaty, reflecting widely held support for imperialism. Some opposition, however, was voiced by Democrats who were motivated by both principle and politics. Most European responses were quietly supportive, especially from interests who were pleased to have help in collecting their debts. Many Europeans had feelings that the Americans were becoming too power hungry and should be watched carefully.
There was little immediate reaction to the revised doctrine in Latin America. As the years passed and the U.S. intervened in the Caribbean and Central America more often, attitudes changed sharply and America was viewed with increased distrust — and outright hatred in many instances.
Those who came after Roosevelt actually enforced the corollary more often than its author. Even Woodrow Wilson, a Democratic and arch critic of Republican foreign policy, used armed intervention in tumultuous Haiti and the Dominican Republic in 1915 and 1916. In later years, Wilson and other administrations took strong-armed action in Cuba, Nicaragua and Mexico as well as making return visits to Haiti and the Dominican Republic.
Versailles Treaty www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/FWWversailles.htm The Paris Peace Conference opened on 12th January 1919, meetings were held at various locations in and around Paris until 20th January, 1920. Leaders of 32 states representing about 75% of the world's population, attended. However, talks were dominated by the five major powers responsible for defeating the Central Powers: the United States, Britain, France, Italy and Japan. Important figures in these talks included Georges Clemenceau (France) David Lloyd George (Britain), Vittorio Orlando (Italy), and Woodrow Wilson (United States). |[pic] |[pic] |
|A Shattered Peace |Treaty of Versailles |
Five treaties came out of the Conference that dealt with the defeated powers. The five treaties were named after the Paris suburbs of Versailles (Germany), St Germain (Austria), Trianon (Hungary), Neuilly (Bulgaria) and Serves (Turkey).
The main terms of the Versailles Treaty were:
(1) the surrender of all German colonies;
(2) the return of Alsace-Lorraine to France;
(3) giving Eupen-Malmedy to Belgium, Memel to Lithuania, the Hultschin district to Czechoslovakia,
(4) Poznania, parts of East Prussia and Upper Silesia to Poland;
(5) Danzig to become a free city;
(6) votes to be held in northern Schleswig to decide if it belonged to Germany or the Netherlands;
(7) occupation and special status for the Saar under French control;
(8) a fifteen-year occupation of the Rhineland;
(9) Germany paying 3 billion dollars in war debt
(10) a ban on Germany and Austria joining together
(11) an acceptance of Germany's guilt in causing the war;
(11) the trial of the former Kaiser and other war leaders;
(12) keeping Germany's army to 100,000 men with no forced joining, no tanks, no major weapons, no poison-gas supplies, no aircraft and no airships;
(13) not allowing submarines in the German navy;
Germany signed the Versailles Treaty under protest. The US Congress refused to agree to the treaty. Many people in France and Britain were angry that there was no trial of the Kaiser or the other war leaders.
Treaty of Versailles - Wars and Battles, World War I
http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1334.html
Representatives of the German government were brought to Paris and on May 7, 1919, presented with the peace treaty. After examining the more than 200-page document, the Germans were angered. They believed that they had been tricked into an agreement with the promise that the Fourteen Points would serve as the backbone of the peace treaty. What they found instead was very different from the 14 Points. The stage was set for two decades of German poverty and hunger, and for the beginning of World War II.
Peace with Germany, like most complicated issues, needed compromise. Despite German anger, the result of the talks was much more moderate than the harsh terms of Brest-Litovsk, but still far from the spirit of the Fourteen Points.
The treaty contained more than 400 articles, but the major issues can be summarized by the following: • Alsace and Lorraine were returned to France. • German colonies were given to winning countries under the League of Nations. • The Saar Basin was given to France for 15 years, then a vote would be held to decide which country the area belonged to. • Poland became an independent country and gained access to the sea through a strip of land that came to be known as the Polish Corridor. • The amount of German war costs was to be determined by a Commission. • Germany was forced to accept responsibility for all losses and damages in the conflict in the "war guilt clause" (Article 231). • Germany was required to destroy weapons: o The drafting of military personnel wasn’t allowed. o The Rhineland region had to remove its weapons. o The German army was limited in size to 100,000 men. o The German navy and air force were reduced. o The German general staff was no longer allowed. o Restrictions were placed on the manufacture of war material. • The Covenant of the League of Nations was included as part of the treaty.
Wilson’s victories included the creation of a modern Poland, the pledge of support for disarming/destroying weapons, developing colonial trusts and, of course, the creation of the League of Nations. However, in order to get these, he accepted the demands of the Allies on reparations/war costs, stripping Germany of its colonies and the near total destruction of the German military — all of which contributed to anger in the defeated nation.
Wilson was aware of the controversy of the treaty, but believed that they could be overcome in the future by actions of the League of Nations.
The formal signing of the treaty took place on June 2nd.
The Treaty of Versailles:
The Inside Story
http://library.thinkquest.org/CR0215466/treaty_of_versailles.htm
[pic]
It is the end of World War I (WWI). Germany has just been involved in, and lost, a war that would change the world forever. The countries that defeated Germany are furious. They blame Germany for starting the war and causing so much harm to their countries. They want and seek revenge. Finally, they come up with a way to get back at Germany. They write a treaty that says Germany is responsible for the war. The treaty takes away Germany’s land, people, money, and belongings. This is that story, the inside story of the Treaty of Versailles.
[pic]
What Is the Treaty of Versailles?
Many experts in history say that World War II (WWII) began because of the Treaty of Versailles. This treaty was an agreement between the Allies, the winning countries of WWI, which were mainly France, Italy, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The treaty was created primarily so that the Allies could decide and agree upon what they wanted to do to the Central Powers, the losing countries of WWI, which were mainly Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire.
[pic]
The Big Four and the Allies
|[pic] |
At the end of WWI, Allied representatives met in Paris at the Palace of Versailles to discuss and make peace treaties with the Central Powers. Woodrow Wilson (President of the United States), David Lloyd George (Prime Minister of the United Kingdom), Georges Clemenceau (Premier of France), and Vittorio Orlando (Prime Minister of Italy), were known as the Big Four. These men were the leaders of the major Allied countries, and they were the four main people involved in deciding the fate of the Central Powers.
Even before The Treaty of Versailles was written, many of the Allied governments, including Italy and Japan, had already made secret treaties with each other, dividing up certain parts of Germany and its colonies. The Ottoman Empire (now Turkey) and other Central Powers, were also to be divided up. In fact, Italy joined the Allies because of Allied promises to divide the Central Powers and give some of the land to Italy if it joined in the war against Germany.
President Wilson didn’t like the idea of the secret treaties that were made. He didn’t want any terms of the secret treaties to be carried out, but he still felt that Germany should be punished for what it had done. He also wanted to help Germany form a democratic government. He felt that this would help rebuild Europe and prevent future wars.
[pic]
Consequences of War
During WWI, there was much devastation done to Germany and other countries. People’s hopes and dreams were shattered. Almost 10,000,000 soldiers around the world died as a result of this war. The Allies wanted Germany to pay for this, so they wrote a treaty which held Germany responsible for WWI. It was called the Treaty of Versailles.
The treaty said that Germany was the only country responsible for WWI. Some people say that Germany was not responsible for WWI. After all, it started when a Serbian shot an Austrian. Some Germans believed that Germany had been made a scapegoat, forcing it to take the blame for the entire war.
The treaty also said that Germany would have to pay for all of the damage done to other countries. Germany’s size was reduced by 12.5%, resulting in a decrease in its population of 6,500,000. When the other countries took possession of German land, the people in it did not move. This made them "belong" to the countries that took over that land.
Many things were taken away because of the Treaty of Versailles. Germany lost 16.7% of its farmland, 12.5% of its livestock, and 10% of its factories because of the Treaty of Versailles. It reduced Germany’s trading, eliminated its navy, and made its army very small.
The treaty also allowed other countries to take away Germany’s colonies around the world. To see which countries took possession of which German land, please refer to the table below.
[pic]
Which Countries Took Possession of German Land?
France took away:
|[p|Provinces of Alsace |
|ic| |
|] | |
|[p|Provinces of Lorraine |
|ic| |
|] | |
|[p|German coal mines in the Saar Region for 15 years |
|ic| |
|] | |
Belgium took away:
|[p|Small areas of Eupen |
|ic| |
|] | |
|[p|Small areas of Malmèdy |
|ic| |
|] | |
|[p|Small areas of Moresńet |
|ic| |
|] | |
|[p|Small areas of St. Vith |
|ic| |
|] | |
Czechoslovakia took away:
|[p|Small border area near Troppau (now Opava) |
|ic| |
|] | |
Denmark took away:
|[p|Northern Schelswig |
|ic| |
|] | |
Poland took away:
|[p|Most of West Prussia |
|ic| |
|] | |
|[p|Much of the Posen (now Poznan) province |
|ic| |
|] | |
The Allies took away:
|[p|Germany’s Rhineland for 15 years |
|ic| |
|] | |
The League of Nations took away:
|[p|Danzig, (now Gdansk, Poland) |
|ic| |
|] | |
To see a map of Europe before the Treaty of Versailles, please refer to the one below.
|[pic] |
[pic]
The League of Nations
President Wilson’s main goal was to set up the League of Nations. This was a group of countries agreeing to keep the peace. The League of Nations was mainly going to be made up of the Allies of WWI. President Wilson thought that other nations would feel threatened by the League of Nations because they had already gone to war against those countries and lost. President Wilson had discussed these ideas in his Fourteen Points, which was a guide with fourteen ideas to make a peace settlement.
The other Allied leaders didn’t completely agree with President Wilson. Georges Clemenceau of France mainly wanted to hurt Germany’s economy, army, and land. David Lloyd George of the United Kingdom mainly wanted to leave Germany with enough supplies for trade, but not for war. The other Allies, especially Italy and Japan, were just interested in controlling Germany’s land and taking it for themselves.
Finally, the other countries gave in. They decided that the League of Nations was a good idea. President Wilson modified many of his points in order to win support for certain changes concerning the League of Nations, and he also modified them because many people disagreed with them. Due to this decision, many of Italy & Japan’s secret treaties, which President Wilson originally was against were allowed to stand, and Italy received part of Austria and Hungary. Japan received German colonies in the North Pacific Ocean and German holdings in China.
[pic]
A Land of New Boundaries
The Allies had a lot of trouble trying to redraw the boundaries of the countries bordering Germany. Finally, they thought of a way to divide up that land. They thought of everyone, except for the Germans. The Allies redrew the borders so that people who spoke the same language were part of the same country. For example, the area that had people that spoke French, became part of France. They did that with France, Switzerland, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Poland, the Netherlands, and Belgium. After dividing up all of that land, the pieces of Germany that remained became Germany.
Before the Treaty of Versailles, a part of Europe was known as the Austro- Hungarian Empire. As a result of the Allies’ decision to change boundaries based on languages spoken, this land was divided into Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary, and a part of Romania. Also, land that had been part of Russia became Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, East Prussia, and Poland, all of which Russia had once taken over and turned into territories of the Russian Empire. The Treaty of Versailles made Russia give back these lands.
Even though they won, some countries, like Japan and Italy, were upset about the treaty. Italy felt that it should have received more land than it got. Japan was given the German territories in the Pacific, but it wanted more land.
[pic]
Reactions and Thoughts of Revenge
In early May 1919, the Treaty of Versailles was shown to Germany. Germany was forced to agree to the treaty, or the Allies threatened to enforce the treaty by invading Germany. Many Germans were angry that the government agreed to the treaty, and they wanted revenge. German officials strongly disagreed with the treaty, but they were forced to accept it. German officials thought that the treaty would be much easier on them due to Wilson’s Fourteen Points.
Germany, and all of the major Allies except China and the United States, agreed to the treaty. Citizens of the United States didn’t approve of President Wilson’s agreement to let Germany be treated the generous way that it was. They thought that Germany should be punished even more for causing so much devastation around the world. In March 1920, the U.S. Senate refused to accept the Treaty of Versailles. Even though President Wilson helped set it up, the United States never joined the League of Nations. However, in August 1921, Germany and the United States created a separate peace agreement called the Treaty of Berlin.
The Treaty of Versailles caused Germany to go through a depression, a time when businesses and people lost a lot of money. Due to this depression, many people lost their jobs. People who could not find jobs joined the Communist and National Socialist parties. The National Socialist Party’s leader, Adolf Hitler, was gaining more and more power because the German people were upset that their government did little to help them and that the government agreed to the Treaty of Versailles. Many Germans were mad that Germany lost so much land because of the Treaty of Versailles, and it had to pay huge amounts of money to Allied countries. They were also mad because the treaty said that Germany alone caused WWI. Many Germans wanted revenge. This is when more Germans began to look up to Adolf Hitler and his National Socialist Party.
The United Nations: An Introduction for Students
http://www.un.org/cyberschoolbus/unintro/unintro3.htm
The predecessor:
The League of Nations
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The League of Nations was created right after the First World War. It originally was made up of 42 countries, 26 of which were non-European. At its largest, 57 countries were members of the League. The League was created because a number of people in France, South Africa, the UK and the US believed that a world organization of nations could keep the peace and prevent a repetition of the horrors of the 1914-18 war in Europe. An effective world body now seemed possible because communications were so much better and there was increasing experience of working together in international organizations. Coordination and cooperation for economic and social progress were becoming important.
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[pic]The League had two basic aims. Firstly, it sought to keep the peace through collective action. Disputes would be referred to the League's Council for negotiation. If needed, economic and then military force could be used. In other words, members worked to defend other members from being attacked. Secondly, the League aimed to promote international cooperation in economic and social affairs.
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The Covenant of the League of Nations begins...
|“In order to promote international cooperation and to achieve international peace and security by the |
|acceptance of obligations not to resort to war, by the prescription of open, just and honorable relations |
|between nations, by the firm establishment of the understandings of international law as the actual rule of |
|conduct among Governments, and by the maintenance of justice and a respect for all treaty obligations in the |
|dealings of organized peoples with one another, Agree to this Covenant of the League of Nations." |
The end of the League
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As the Second World War unfolded, it became clear that the League had failed in its goal of keeping the peace. The League had no military power of its own. It depended on its members' money and army; and its members were not willing to use economic or military punishments. Morals weren’t enough to keep countries from attacking one another.
Several Big Powers failed to support the League: the United States never joined; Germany was a member for only seven years from 1926 and the USSR for only five years from 1934; Japan and Italy both left the League in the 30s. The League then depended mainly on Britain and France, who were not willing to act forcefully. It was difficult for governments used to working on their own to cooperate with members of another organization.
History of the League of Nations
http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/FWWleague.htm
During the First World War several world leaders such as Woodrow Wilson and Jan Smuts, began promoting the need for an international organization to preserve peace and settle disputes. In September, 1916, Robert Cecil, a member of the British government, wrote a letter where he argued that civilization could survive only if it could develop an international system that would insure peace.
When peace negotiations began in October, 1918, Woodrow Wilson insisted that his Fourteen Points should serve as a basis for the signing of the agreement. This included the formation of the League of Nations.
The constitution of the League of Nations was adopted by the Paris Peace Conference in April, 1919. The League's headquarters were in Geneva and its first secretary-general was Sir Eric Drummond. The Covenant (Constitution) of the League of Nations called for collective security and the peaceful settlement of disputes. It was decided that any country that resorted to war would not be allowed to trade with other countries.
The main parts of the League of Nations were the General Assembly, the Council and the Secretariat. The General Assembly, which met once a year, was made of representatives of all the member states and decided on the organization's policy. The Council included four permanent members (Britain, France, Italy and Japan) and four (later nine) others elected by the General Assembly every three years. The Secretariat prepared the agenda and published reports of meetings.
As a result of the decision by the US Congress not to sign the Versailles Treaty, the United States never joined the League of Nations. Others joined but later left the organization: Brazil (1926), Japan (1933), Italy (1937). Germany was only a member from 1926 to 1933, and the Soviet Union from 1934 to 1940.
The League of Nations had no armed forces and had to rely on boycotts (sanctions) to control the behavior of member states. In January 1923 France occupied the Ruhr. Six months later Italy bombed the Greek island of Corfu. When the League of Nations discussed these events, the governments of France and Italy threatened to withdraw from the organization. As a result, the League of Nations decided not to take any action. Konni Zilliacus, a member of the Information Section of the League Secretariat, wrote to his friend Norman Angell: "I feel depressed and fed up. Who could have imagined things would turn out as badly as this?"
In 1924 the League of Nations was given a boost when James Ramsay MacDonald, Arthur Henderson and Edouard Herriot, leading politicians in Britain and France, visited Geneva in 1924. Hugh Dalton, wrote enthusiastically, "The League seemed to have come to life again, and to have gained a new significance."
The League of Nations also had success in preventing wars in the border disputes between Bulgaria-Greece (1925), Iraq-Turkey (1925-26) and Poland-Lithuania (1927) and in drug control, refugee work and famine relief.
In 1929 foreign ministers of all the main European nations attended meetings of the League of Nations. Mary Hamilton, a Labour Party delegate to the League of Nations wrote: "Geneva in 1929 and 1930 was a genuine International clearing-house of ideas... There was hard work, and there was goodwill."
The League of Nations faced a fresh crisis in September 1931 when the Japanese Army occupied large areas of Manchuria, a province of China. The Chinese government appealed to the League of Nations under Article 11 of the Covenant. China also appealed to the United States.
In March 1932 Japan renamed Manchuria as Manchukuo ("land of the Manchus"). Only Germany and Italy recognized the new state. The Lytton Report was published six months later. The report acknowledged that Japan had serious complaints against the Chinese Government. However, the report condemned the Japanese invasion of Manchuria and refused to recognize Manchukuo as an independent state. When the League adopted the report Japan resigned from the organization.
Konni Zilliacus, an official of the League of Nations, believed that Germany and Italy posed the greatest threat to world peace. He argued for the creation of an "inner ring" of states within the League of Nations, led by Britain, France and the Soviet Union. He also proposed the election of a new international debating chamber of the League of Nations.
In October 1935 Benito Mussolini sent in General Pietro Badoglio and the Italian Army into Ethiopia. The League of Nations condemned Italy's aggression and in November gave punishments. These included an attempt to ban countries from selling arms, rubber and some metals to Italy. Some political leaders in France and Britain opposed punishments arguing that it might persuade Mussolini to form an alliance with Adolf Hitler and Nazi Germany.
Over 400,000 Italian troops fought in Ethiopia. The poorly armed Ethiopians were no match for Italy's modern tanks and airplanes. The Italians even used mustard gas on the home forces and were able to capture Addis Ababa, the capital of the country, in May 1936, forcing Emperor Haile Selassie to flee to England.
In September 1938, Neville Chamberlain, the British prime minister, met Adolf Hitler at his home in Berchtesgaden. Hitler threatened to invade Czechoslovakia unless Britain supported Germany's plans to takeover the Sudetenland. After discussing the issue with the Edouard Daladier (France) and Eduard Benes (Czechoslovakia), Chamberlain informed Hitler that his proposals were unacceptable.
Benito Mussolini suggested to Adolf Hitler that one way of solving this issue was to hold a four-power conference of Germany, Britain, France and Italy.
The meeting took place in Munich on 29th September, 1938. Desperate to avoid war, and anxious to avoid a partnership with Joseph Stalin and the Soviet Union, Neville Chamberlain and Edouard Daladier agreed that Germany could have the Sudetenland. In return, Hitler promised not to make any further demands for land in Europe. Adolf Hitler, Neville Chamberlain, Edouard Daladier and Benito Mussolini now signed the Munich Agreement which transferred the Sudetenland to Germany. The League of Nations remained silent on the invasion.
Joseph Stalin now became concerned about the Soviet Union being invaded from the West. Stalin argued that Leningrad was only thirty-two kilometers from the Finnish border and its 3.5 million population, were vulnerable to fire from Nazi Germany. Stalin ordered the Red Army to invade on 30th November 1939. This time the League of Nations decided to take action and kicked the Soviet Union out of the group.
The League of Nations did not meet during the Second World War. In 1946 the responsibilities of the League of Nations was handed over to the United Nations.
Political Dictionary – League of Nations
http://www.answers.com/topic/league-of-nations
The League of Nations was established at the end of the First World War by the winning powers meeting at the Paris Peace Conference. Its strongest supporter was US President Woodrow Wilson. His own country's Senate refused to accept membership and the world's strongest state became isolationist. Of the other great powers only Great Britain and France were to be members throughout the League's existence. Germany, the Soviet Union, Japan, and Italy joined late or resigned, or did both.
The League was given the task of preventing conflict through a system called collective security. False hopes were raised that all war crimes would be prevented or war criminals effectively punished by the leading states in the League's establishment.
At all events, when 1931 Japan invaded Manchuria, Great Britain and France, the only League members at the time with strength, proved unwilling to act. Next, in 1935, Italy invaded Abyssinia. No other big powers had an interest in Abyssina’s safety. This was the deciding test case for the League. Great Britain and France had the ability to defeat Italy if matters came to an all-out war. The British government believed that they could not risk the loss of even part of their fleet in a war with Italy at a time when their land in the Far East were thought to be threatened by Japan and when the US administration was seen to be led by isolationists. Similarly, the French held that war with Italy for the sake of Abyssinia would be foolish at a time when all French forces were thought to be needed for a possible early showdown with Nazi Germany. Abyssinia was taken into the Italian empire in 1936. As a body for resisting international aggression the League had thus effectively fallen. It continued to exist without power until the end of the Second World War when it was replaced by the United Nations.
— David Carlton
Immigration Quota Act
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Background
Before these new immigration laws were in place, the average annual number of new immigrants into America was around 800,000. Almost two-thirds of these new-comers were from southern and eastern Europe. Most Americans did not like the "new immigrants" (the ones from southern and eastern Europe) because these people usually did not speak much English, held religious services in foreign languages, were not familiar with democracy, dressed differently, and brought the new political philosophies of communism, socialism, and anarchy with them. Many Americans feared these new ideas because they clashed with the American system.
During World War I, many Americans were in Europe fighting, so there were many job openings and employment opportunities. Immigrants quickly filled these positions, and employers were happy to have them since most of their normal workers were in Europe. These immigrants kept the factories running until the soldiers returned from the war, seeking to return to work. The immigrants, however, did not want to give up their new jobs. Furious that their jobs had been stolen from them, the soldiers along with other Americans proclaimed that the jobs should go to "real" Americans. This competition for jobs led to increased anti-foreignism among American citizens and the country's desire to stop the flow of immigrants.
Immigration Act of 1921
The Immigration Act of 1921 restricted the number of immigrants that could enter America each year. This Act allowed no more than 350,000 immigrants to arrive per year, or no more than 3% of the American population according to the census of 1910. This was good for the immigrants from southern and eastern Europe because they already had large numbers in America, so 3% of their population would be an ample amount of immigrants.
Immigration Act of 1924
Also known as the National Origins Act, the Immigration Act of 1924 reduced the annual movement of immigrants into the United States from 350,000 to 152,000 and from 3% of the existing population to 2%. While the Immigration Act of 1921 based the 3% allowance off of the census of 1910, the Immigration Act of 1924 based its 2% off the 1890 census. This seriously decreased the flow of immigrants because there were far fewer immigrants in America in 1890 than there were living in 1910. By combining this new national-origins base with the lower percentage of immigrant allowance, they stemmed the tide of immigrants into America. This act did not affect all immigrants equally. It completely banned all immigrants from Japan, causing mass "Hate America" riots to break out. On the other hand, Canadians and Latin Americans weren’t restricted by the quota act because their countries were nearby. This made immigrants from these countries available to fill empty job positions, but also made it easy to send them back to their home countries should the Americans get tired of them. Sources 1. Kennedy, D., Cohen, L., & Bailey, T. (2006). The American Pageant. Boston, NY: Houghton Mifflin Company. 2. Klopfenstein, Mark (2002). Lecture notes: American society in the 1920's. Retrieved February 22, 2007, from Mr. Klopfenstein's History Home. http://www.bv229.k12.ks.us/bvhs_klopfenstein/index.htm
U.S. Diplomatic History > 1921-1936
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/id/87718.htm
The Immigration Act of 1924 limited the number of immigrants allowed entry into the United States through a national origins quota (restriction). The quota provided immigration visas to two percent of the total number of people of each nationality in the United States as of the 1890 national census. It completely excluded immigrants from Asia.
In 1917, the U.S. Congress enacted the first widely restrictive immigration law. The fear over national security during World War I made it possible for Congress to pass this Act, and it included several important features that paved the way for the 1924 Act. The 1917 Act created a literacy test that required immigrants over 16 years old to demonstrate basic reading comprehension in any language. It also increased the tax paid by new immigrants upon arrival and allowed immigration officials to have more say in whom to exclude. Finally, the Act excluded from entry anyone born in a geographically defined "Asiatic Barred Zone" except for Japanese and Filipinos. In 1907, the Japanese Government had limited Japanese immigration to the U.S. in the Gentlemen's Agreement. The Philippines was an American colony, so its citizens were American nationals and could travel freely to the United States. China was not included in the Barred Zone, but the Chinese were already denied immigration visas under the Chinese Exclusion Act.
The literacy test alone was not enough to prevent most potential immigrants from entering, so members of Congress sought a new way to restrict immigration in the 1920s. Immigration expert and Republican Senator from Vermont William P. Dillingham introduced a measure to create immigration quotas, which he set at three percent of the total population of the foreign-born of each nationality in the United States as recorded in the 1910 census. This put the total number of visas available each year to new immigrants at 350,000. It did not, however, establish quotas of any kind for residents of the Western Hemisphere. President Wilson opposed the act, preferring a more liberal immigration policy, so he used the pocket veto to prevent its passage. In early 1921, the newly inaugurated President Warren Harding called Congress back to a special session to pass the law. In 1922, the act was renewed for another two years.
When the Congressional debate over immigration began in 1924, the quota system was so well-established that no one questioned whether to maintain it, but rather discussed how to adjust it. Though there were supporters of raising quotas and allowing more people to enter, the champions of restricting numbers triumphed. They created a plan that lowered the existing quota from three to two percent of the foreign born population. They also pushed back the year on which quota calculations were based from 1910 to 1890.
Another change to the quota altered the basis of the quota calculations. The quota had been based on the number of people born outside of the United States, or the number of immigrants in the United States. The new law traced the origins of the whole of the American population, including natural-born citizens. The new quota calculations included large numbers of people of British descent whose families were long resident in the United States. As a result, the percentage of visas available to individuals from the British Isles and Western Europe increased, but newer immigration from other areas like Southern and Eastern Europe was limited.
The 1924 Immigration Act also included a rule preventing from entry any alien who by race or nationality was ineligible for citizenship. Existing nationality laws dating from 1790 and 1870 excluded people of Asian heritage from naturalizing. As a result, the 1924 Act meant that even Asians not previously prevented from immigrating - the Japanese in particular - would no longer be admitted to the United States. Many in Japan were very offended by the new law. The Japanese government protested, but the law remained, resulting in an increase in existing tensions between the two nations. The U.S. Congress had decided that preserving the racial composition of the country was more important than promoting good ties with the Japanese empire.
The Act could have resulted in strained relations with some European countries as well, but these potential problems did not appear for several reasons. The global depression of the 1930s and World War II both served to decrease European emigration. When these crises had passed, emergency rules for the resettlement of displaced persons in 1948 and 1950 helped the United States avoid conflict over its new immigration laws.
Teacher Lessons/Resources
Exit Project Skill Based Lesson Plans
See attached PDF document.
Note Taking Templates included in PDF:
Pg. 19 – Web Design Note Template
Pg. 25 - Project Timeline Worksheet
Pg. 38 - Three Column Note Taking
Pg. 42 - Bibliography Reference Sheet
Pg. 48 - Written Document Analysis Worksheet
Lesson Plans on Imperialism: www.tfanyconnect.org UserName: karenembraza
Password: ireland7
Search for middle school Social Studies lesson plans; there are numerous samples and templates available.
Spanish-American War
NY Public Library Exhibit http://www.nypl.org/research/chss/epo/spanexhib/index.html Primary Source docs, Summaries and Lesson Plans http://www.smplanet.com/imperialism/toc.html Panama Canal
Primary Source Materials http://www.canalmuseum.com/ Smithsonian Presentation on the Panama Canal http://www.sil.si.edu/Exhibitions/Make-the-Dirt-Fly/blast-4.htm The Portsmouth Treaty
Photos, Book Excerpts http://www.seacoastnh.com/navyyard/1905treaty.html World War I
Timeline http://www.pbs.org/greatwar/ Primary Source Docs http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/historyonline/us32.cfm PowerPoint on the war– (Reference Chapter 22) http://wps.ablongman.com/long_nash_ap_6/0,7361,592970-,00.html Blank Maps for Imperialism http://wps.ablongman.com/wps/media/objects/579/592970/BlankMaps/World%20War%20I.gif League of Nations Photo Archive http://www.indiana.edu/~league/ The Great War: Evaluating the Treaty of Versailles
(Note to Corps Member: Feel free to use whichever pieces and portions of the lesson feel applicable. Don’t feel obligated to teach the lesson in its entirety, as you will not have time to do so.)
Introduction
Although at the postwar peace talks President Woodrow Wilson wished above all to prevent future wars, the Treaty of Versailles, which formally ended World War I, is widely considered to have contributed to the rise to power of the Nazi party in Germany. Was the Treaty of Versailles a legitimate and justified attempt by the victorious powers to ensure that Germany would never again pose a military threat? Or did the Treaty, as the Nazis and many other politicians in Germany claimed, place an unfair and unnecessarily punitive burden on Germany? Was the supposed unfairness of the Treaty a significant contributor to the rise of the Nazi party in Germany—or was it merely a convenient rhetorical tool for German politicians to exploit? If the unfairness of the Treaty were indeed a cause of fascism in Germany, how do we explain the rise of fascism in Italy (which fought on the side of the allies in World War I) or the existence of fascist movements in Britain, the Netherlands, and other Western democracies in the 1930s?
By studying a variety of primary sources, maps, and supporting documents concerning the post-war peace process, students will develop a context for evaluating whether the treaty was a viable, fair one, and for considering some of the complex questions this issue raises about the historical causality and responsibility. The lesson fits within a larger unit on World War I, and some prior knowledge of the causes and events of the war is assumed.
Guiding Questions:
What were the aims and motives of the victorious powers in drawing up the Treaty of Versailles? Was the Treaty a fair one? Was the German response justfied?
Learning Objectives
• To learn the motives and aims of the Treaty of Versailles • To learn the terms that the Treaty imposed on Germany • To consider how each country's unique wartime experience may have shaped its aims at the Peace Conference; to examine the different motives and aims of the United States and other allies such as France • To learn about Germany's reaction to the Treaty of Versailles • To discuss whether the terms of the Treaty were fair • To discuss whether the Treaty contributed to the rise to power of the Nazi Party in Germany
Preparing to Teach this Lesson
• Review Hitler's April 17, 1923 speech, available here as a downloadable PDF file, denouncing the treaty. • Review Articles 42-50 and 231-235, and skim Articles 159-213, of the Treaty of Versailles; the text is from the EDSITEment resource Great War Primary Documents Archive. Another webpage containing the text in its entirety, The Versailles Treaty, is available from the EDSITEment-reviewed from Internet Public Library, which has a page specifically devoted to World War I History. • Review background information on the treaty and the German reaction, available through two resources from the History Department at Colby College, and reviewed by the Center for the Liberal Arts, an EDSITEment resource: "Germany's Responsibility for the War" and "The Weimar Republic: the Treaty of Versailles". • Read background information on the treaty's place in the subsequent rise to power of the Nazis, available at the EDSITEment resource U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum: "Treaty of Versailles, 1919." The article points out that the Treaty was a useful rhetorical device for the Nazis and other right-wing parties, which could brandish it as evidence of the traitorous actions of democratic parties that had accepted the terms of the treaty. The article also makes the point that in the years following 1921, the date the Treaty took effect, the Treaty was altered in Germany's favor, and that "with the occupation of the Rhineland on March 7, 1936, all military restrictions (which had already been violated before Hitler's accession to power) became null and void." • Maps of Europe before, during, and after World War I are available from several sources listed on Internet Public Library: General Reference/Maps. Produced by the Department of History at the United States Military Academy, the Map Library contains these contrasting maps: Europe in 1914 and Europe in 1919 ; The World in 1914 and The World in 1919. A series of maps can also be found at The Versailles Treaty, such as Europe and Asia Minor in 1914 and Germany in 1919. • Besides teaching students about the contents of the Treaty of Versailles, this lesson raises challenging questions about historical causality and responsibility. Students have an innate sense of what is and isn't fair and may have strong feelings about the fairness (or not) of the Treaty. Provided in the Introduction above, and in activity 5 below, are some questions for discussion that may help your students think about—or rethink—the implications of the positions they take in activity 5.
Suggested Activities
1. Motives for the Treaty: the Trauma of World War I
2. Drawing Up the Treaty: France and the United States
3. Optional activity: A Treaty of the Victors
4. The Terms of the Treaty
5. The German Response
1. Motives for the Treaty: the Trauma of World War I
Begin by sharing with your students the enormous and unprecedented human costs of the Great War. This will give them a context for considering the motivations of the allied powers in imposing the Treaty of Versailles, and for judging whether or not the terms of the Treaty were justified. By comparing the numbers of casualties and total troops mobilized, students will also have a basis for understanding the differing positions taken by the countries that drew up the Treaty.
Begin by examining death and casualty tolls from France and the United States, respectively. For a brief look, students may use the Diagram: Deaths by Countries in Thousands at the Great War Primary Documents Archive. For a more in-depth look, with information not only on deaths, but on total casualties and total mobilized men, have students look at the diagram Casualties: First World War, produced by the Spartacus Educational Network in Great Britain, a link from Center for the Liberal Arts. Have students note not only the total deaths and casualties, but also particularly the percentage of casualties relative to total mobilized. Also have students examine photographs of destruction along the western front in France. The three sets of Before and After photographs from the Great War Primary Documents Archive will probably suffice, although you may also wish to have students include some or all of the following: Ruins of Vaux, Ruins of Cantigny, Ruins of Arras Cathedral, and Ruins of the Arras Hotel de Ville. What level of destruction do these pictures indicate? What are some emotions evoked when viewing these images? What happened to the originally charming and vibrant Village of Esnes? Why is it significant that major civic buildings such as the Courthouse (Palace of Justice), cathedral, and City Hall (Hotel de Ville) were destroyed? Can you envision what these buildings and towns may have looked like before the war? How long do you think it would take to rebuild these buildings and communities? How much do you think it would cost? Can a community ever really recover from such destruction? Ask students to speculate, based on this information, how France's goals for the postwar settlement might differ from U.S. goals. What might France fear? What would France probably want with respect to Germany? Why? Would those desires be reasonable? Why or why not? Why might the U.S. be able to take a more idealistic perspective?
2. Drawing Up the Treaty: France and the United States
Next have students read excerpts from President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points speech to Congress from the Great War Primary Documents Archive. Specifically, first have students read the last two paragraphs of Wilson's speech (the part before the actual enumeration of the points). What does Wilson say are the goals of the United States? What is his hope for the world and for the postwar talks? Then have students read the first paragraph right after the enumeration of the Fourteen Points. What is Wilson's stated attitude toward Germany? How would this attitude differ from France's? Again, in the context of the information from activity #1 above, why might the U.S. be more inclined than France to take an idealistic perspective?
3. Optional activity: A Treaty of the Victors
Have students write out a list, based on their knowledge, of what they believe would be the most important respective postwar goals for France, Germany, and the United States. Each country should have at least 5 items, ranked from most important to least important. (You may wish to start students out with one or two items, such as have Germany pay for the war or establish a peace-keeping body.) Break students into groups of three, each of whom represents one of these countries, and have students spend approximately 20-30 minutes attempting to negotiate an agreement centered around these goals. When time is up, discuss the process and share the various results. Were there any common goals? Were compromises made? Which country was most pleased with how the negotiations turned out? Most displeased? On balance, did each country feel it had achieved its most important goal? Were there any particular impasses or impediments to agreements?
Be sure to inform students that in reality, Germany was not represented at the settlement talks. Later in the lesson, after considering the real treaty, ask how Germany's presence might have altered the peace process. (An alternative activity would be to do the above activity with only France and the United States represented; this has the advantage of being closer to the historical reality.)
4. The Terms of the Treaty • Now have students begin to consider the actual terms of the peace treaty with respect to Germany. First have students analyze before and after maps of Europe and the world. (See Preparing to Teach section above for several options for maps to use in this activity.) How much European land did Germany lose? Which regions specifically? To which countries did this land go? What land worldwide was lost by Germany? To which countries did this land go? • Students should then read Sections III and IV (Articles 42-50) of the treaty for the terms pertaining to the Rhineland and the Saar Basin; these articles are in the treaty section Political Clauses For Europe. (Preparing to Teach section above for links to the treaty.) Have students locate these regions on a map. Why were these clauses probably inserted? What benefits did these clauses give France? Was it reasonable to establish the demilitarized Rhineland buffer zone? How would the terms regarding the Saar Basin affect the German economy? How would Germany probably react to these terms? • Next have students read the treaty for the terms pertaining to Germany's military, in the treaty section Military, Naval and Air Clauses. What were the terms for Germany? What sovereign powers did Germany lose? How might these clauses have satisfied France? How would Germany probably react? Have students discuss whether it is reasonable to disarm a former enemy belligerent. • Students should then read the treaty for the terms pertaining to Germany's war guilt and reparations, in the treaty section Reparations. First discuss the infamous "war guilt clause," Article 231. Why does it single out Germany and not the other Central Powers? Based on their knowledge (again, it is assumed that students will have already spent time learning the causes of the war), is this clause accurate? Does Germany warrant more responsibility than other countries? Do the Allies bear any responsibility? As preparation, for this discussion, you may wish to have students read the aforementioned background essays that discuss the extent of German guilt. (See Preparing to Teach section above for links to these essays.) Then discuss the sections on reparations, especially Articles 232-235. How much was Germany to pay? How might this affect the German economy?
5. The German Response • Have students read the German Reply Memorandum to the treaty, written by the German Foreign Minister Count Brockdorff-Rantzau, available here as a downloadable PDF file. Explain that Germany was allowed to fashion a reply to the treaty draft, but its terms were summarily rejected by the Allies. What objections does Germany raise to the treaty? Are these objections valid? Should the Allies have modified the treaty in any way to address these points? • Now have students read Hitler's April 17, 1923 speech, available here as a downloadable PDF file, denouncing the treaty. (Ideally students will already be familiar with the circumstances behind the Weimar Republic. If not, explain to students that the German Kaiser abdicated at the close of World War I, to be succeeded by a democratic republic known as the Weimar Republic. It was representatives of the Weimar Republic who signed the Versailles Treaty.) Discuss his speech. Why is Hitler so vitriolic concerning the Weimar Republic? What does he blame the Weimar Republic for? What other goals does he link to the elimination of the treaty? What imagery does he use? What actions is he alluding to at the end? How might this speech appeal to the emotions of the listener? Consider how the treaty may have contributed to the rise of Nazism, and by extension, World War II. Would Hitler have been able to give such a powerful speech or to find a receptive audience if the treaty had been different? • Was the German response to the Treaty of Versailles justified? Have students take a stand on whether the treaty was fair or unfair, with specific evidence to justify their ideas. This may be done through discussion, debate, or a written assignment.
Once students have had a chance to consider their positions on this question, discuss with your class some of the larger issues of causality and responsibility that are raised by this exercise. Some questions are: What are our sources for gauging the German response? Can we trust them? Might German politicians in the 1930s have had something to gain by exploiting the bitterness of defeat? If we believe that the terms of the treaty were unfair, does this mean that the allies bear responsibility in some fashion for subsequent developments in Germany? That the German response was justified?
You may also want to discuss questions raised in the Introduction, above, about other explanations for the appeal of fascism in Germany. Antisemitism was sometimes framed in terms of the supposed "unfair" advantages that Jewish bankers and merchants had taken of hardworking Germans (you can read more about antisemitism and the rise of fascism in Germany at the Holocaust Learning Center, a resource from the U.S. Holocaust Museum).
Extending the Lesson
• Have students research other postwar settlements, such as the peace terms of the Congress of Vienna after the Napoleonic Wars, and compare them to the Treaty of Versailles. Some sample questions to consider: What were the victors' goals at the Congress of Vienna? Were they different than the goals of the victors in 1919? Was the 1815 settlement a harsh one toward France? What happened to the government of France after the Napoleonic Wars, and how did this compare to what happened to the government of Germany? What territorial adjustments were made after the Napoleonic Wars, and how did these adjustments compare to the 1919 adjustments? The Congress of Vienna settlement is widely credited with keeping Europe out of a continent-wide war for 100 years (in fact, until World War I!). Why might it have been so successful at keeping the peace, whereas the Versailles settlement collapsed after only two decades? Students should conduct their own research for this expansion activity, but following are some basic background sites for students to begin with (all are linked to the EDSITEment resource, Internet Public Library): "Europe in Retrospect: International Order and Domestic Strife," produced by Britannia Encyclopedia Online; "Congress of Vienna," produced by Bartleby Encyclopedia Online; and "Congress of Vienna," a student essay from Chico High School in Chico, California. • Hold a discussion/debate or give a written assignment exploring what, if any, are the victor's obligations after a war is over. To what extent should a defeated wartime enemy be punished? Is harsh punishment practical? Worthwhile? legitimate?
Selected EDSITEment Websites
• Great War Primary Documents Archive [http://www.lib.byu.edu/%7Erdh/wwi] o President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points [http://www.lib.byu.edu/~rdh/wwi/1918/14points.html] o 28 June, 1919: The Peace Treaty of Versailles [www.lib.byu.edu/~rdh/wwi/versailles.html] o Before and After Photographs [http://raven.cc.ukans.edu/~kansite/ww_one/ photos/before.htm] o Photographs of Destruction [http://www.gwpda.org/photos/death.htm#destruct] [http://www.gwpda.org/photos/bin01/imag0048.jpg] [http://www.gwpda.org/photos/bin01/imag0037.jpg] [http://www.gwpda.org/photos/bin01/imag0017.jpg] o Diagram: Deaths by Countries in Thousands [http://lib.byu.edu/~rdh/wwi/memoir/docs/ statistics/diagrams/d62.gif] • Center for the Liberal Arts [http://www.virginia.edu/cla/] o "Germany's Responsibility for the War" [http://www.colby.edu/personal/r/rmscheck/GermanyC1.html] o "The Weimar Republic: the Treaty of Versailles" [http://www.colby.edu/personal/r/rmscheck/GermanyD1.html] o Casualties: First World War [http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/FWWdeaths.htm] • U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum [http://www.ushmm.org] o "Treaty of Versailles, 1919" [http://www.ushmm.org/topics/article.utp?id=10005425] • Internet Public Library [http://www.ipl.org] o The Versailles Treaty [http://history.acusd.edu/gen/text/versaillestreaty/vercontents.html] o Europe and Asia Minor in 1914 [http://history.acusd.edu/gen/WW2pics/81520.GIF] o Germany in 1919 [http://history.acusd.edu/gen/WW2pics/81523.GIF] o Europe in 1914 [http://www.dean.usma.edu/history/dhistorymaps/ WW1Pages/WWIs2.htm] o Europe in 1919 [http://www.dean.usma.edu/history/dhistorymaps/ WW1Pages/WWIs51.htm] o The World in 1914 [http://www.dean.usma.edu/history/web03/atlases/ great%20war/great%20war%20%20pages/great%20war%20map%2051.htm] o The World in 1919 [http://www.dean.usma.edu/history/dhistorymaps/ WW1Pages/WWIL52.htm] o "Europe in Retrospect: International Order and Domestic Strife" [http://britannia.com/history/euro/1/3_1.html] o "Congress of Vienna" [http://www.bartleby.com/65/vi/Vienna-C.html] o "Congress of Vienna" [http://www.pvhs.chico.k12.ca.us/~bsilva/ projects/congress/vienessy.html]
The Debate in the United States over the League of Nations: League of Nations Basics
http://edsitement.neh.gov/view_lesson_plan.asp?id=476
(Note to Corps Member: Feel free to use whichever pieces and portions of the lesson feel applicable. Don’t feel obligated to teach the lesson in its entirety, as you will not have time to do so.)
Lesson One of Curriculum Unit:
The Debate in the United States over the League of Nations
Introduction
American foreign policy continues to resonate with the issues surrounding the debate over U.S. entry into the League of Nations-collective security versus national sovereignty, idealism versus pragmatism, the responsibilities of powerful nations, the use of force to accomplish idealistic goals, the idea of America. Understanding the debate over the League and the consequences of its ultimate failure provides insight into international affairs in the years since the end of the Great War and beyond.
In this lesson, students read the words and listen to the voices of some central participants in the debate over the League of Nations.
Note: This lesson may be taught either as a stand-alone lesson or as part of the curriculum unit, The Debate in the United States Over the League of Nations. This curriculum unit may serve as a sequel to the complementary EDSITEment lesson U.S. Entry into World War I: A Documentary Chronology.
Guiding Question:
What was Woodrow Wilson's role in and vision for peace and the League of Nations after World War I?
Learning Objectives
After completing the lessons in this unit, students will be able to: • Describe Wilson's concepts for peace and the League of Nations and efforts to foster American support for it.
Share with the class the card The League of Nations: A Pictorial Study on the PBS website Woodrow Wilson, a link from the EDSITEment resource American Memory.
Guiding Discussion Questions:
• Why is Wilson pictured at the center of the card? • Look at the text surrounding Wilson's image. What is its significance? • Why is the Fourteenth Point printed at the bottom of the card? XIV. A general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike. • The League of Nations printed this card. How might the card's contents and design serve the interests of the League?
Review President Wilson's Fourteen Points (found within the text of Wilson's January 8, 1918, address to a joint session of Congress) on the EDSITEment resource Great War Primary Documents Archive.
Guiding Discussion Questions:
• Which points were about specific territorial issues in Europe and elsewhere? • Review points 1-5 and 14: I. Open treaties II. Freedom of navigation upon the seas III. Removal of economic barriers IV. Reduction of arms V. Free, open-minded, and absolutely impartial adjustment of all colonial claims XIV. (See above.) • Which, if any, would be of little benefit/great benefit to powerful nations like the U.S.? • Which, if any, would be of little benefit/great benefit to weaker nations? • Which, if any, would likely be regarded as taking away some of the power of the U.S. as a sovereign nation?
Now share with students The Covenant and Members of the League of Nations on the EDSITEment-reviewed website Links to the Past.
Guiding Discussion Questions:
• Which nations were not members of the League? • What were the basic tenets of the Covenant? (If desired, look at the complete text of the Covenant of the League of Nations available on the PBS website Woodrow Wilson, a link from the EDSITEment resource American Memory.) • Look at the introduction to the Covenant. Compare it to the Fourteenth Point. THE HIGH CONTRACTING PARTIES, In order to promote international co-operation and to achieve international peace and security by the acceptance of obligations not to resort to war, by the prescription of open, just and honorable relations between nations, by the firm establishment of the understandings of international law as the actual rule of conduct among Governments, and by the maintenance of justice and a scrupulous respect for all treaty obligations in the dealings of organized peoples with one another, agree to this Covenant of the League of Nations.
Students wanting more detail about the origins and History of the League of Nations can read this brief essay on From Revolution to Reconstruction, a link from the EDSITEment-reviewed website American Studies at the University of Virginia.
Assessment
In writing or through oral response to questions, students should be able to describe President Wilson's role in creating the League of Nations. They should understand the basic issues covered in Wilson's Fourteen points, and compare those with the tenets in the Covenant of the League of Nations.
Selected EDSITEment Websites
American Memory [http://memory.loc.gov/]
o PBS History [http://www.pbs.org/aboutpbs/] o Woodrow Wilson (American Experience) [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/wilson/index.html] o Wilson—A Portrait: The League of Nations [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/wilson/portrait/wp_league.html] o Wilson's Fourteen Points [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/wilson/filmmore/fm_14points.html] o The Covenant of the League of Nations (Signed June 28, 1919) [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/wilson/filmmore/fm_nations.html] • American Studies at the University of Virginia [http://xroads.virginia.edu/] o From Revolution to Reconstruction [http://odur.let.rug.nl/~usa/index.htm] o History of the League of Nations [http://odur.let.rug.nl/~usa/E/league/leaguexx.htm] • Great War Primary Documents Archive [http://www.lib.byu.edu/~rdh/wwi/ ] o President Wilson's Fourteen Points [http://www.lib.byu.edu/~rdh/wwi/1918/14points.html] • Links to the Past [http://www.cr.nps.gov/] o The Covenant and Members of the League of Nations [http://www.cr.nps.gov/nr/twhp/wwwlps/lessons/14wilson/14visual2.htm]
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