Increasing Risk to Tourists Visiting Volcanic Regions

Increasing Risks to Tourists Visiting Volcanic Regions
Introduction
Adventure travel is becoming more and more popular worldwide with ever increasing documentaries and books detailing exotic get-a-ways and increased accessibility; in US National Parks alone from 1962 to 2010 the number of visitors annually has increased from 32 to 281 million. Due to this unprecedented increase, the concept of geotourism was introduced; defined as “tourism that sustains or enhances the geographical character of a place, its environment, culture, aesthetics, heritage and wellbeing of its residents”. There are now 89 Geoparks spread across 27 countries (excluding USA) dedicated to preserving geologically important sites.
Volcanoes
Fimmvorduhals, Iceland - Fig 1
Fimmvorduhals, Iceland - Fig 1
The majority of geological tourist attractions tend to be in areas of volcanic activity both active and extinct; such features include the volcanoes themselves, geysers and hot springs, plateaus, calderas and crater lakes. All areas of volcanic activity present a variety of hazards for tourists including poisonous gases, lava flows and tephra (see Table 1). Table 1 – Potential hazards threatening volcano tourists | Hazard | Potential Health Effects | Example | Acid Rain | Irritates eyes, skin. Secondary effects on vegetation, property and water quality. | Masaya, Nicaragua | Tephra | Impact injuries, skin and eye irritation, respiratory irritation. Secondary effects on property, water quality and agriculture. | Mount St Helens, USA | Earthquakes | Impact injuries due to property damage/debris. May cause a tsunami. | El Chichón, Mexico | Volcanic Gases | Asphyxiation, bronchitis, vomiting, dizziness, skin, eye and respiratory irritation. | Hawaii volcanoes | Jökulhlaups | Flooding, drowning and impact injuries. Secondary effects on agriculture and property. | Skeiðaràrsandur, Iceland | Landslides/ Lahars | Burial and impact injuries. May create small tsunami. Secondary effects on property and agriculture. | Kelut, Java | Lava Flows | Thermal injuries and methane explosions. | Nyiragongo, Congo | Laze | Irritates eyes and respiratory system. | Pu’u O’o, Hawaii | Pyroclastic Density Currents | Thermal injuries and fatalities. | Vesuvius, Italy | Tsunami | Drowning and injuries from debris. | Krakatau, Indonesia | Adapted from Table 1, Heggie and Table 1, Hansell, Horwell and Oppenheimer2, |

Landslides/ Lahars
Landslides and lahars are one of the most dangerous after effects of a volcanic eruption; the debris (rock, snow or ice) that falls downhill often turns into a mudflow which can travel at speeds of up to 50 km/hr6. Mudflows can be caused by rapid melting of snow and ice caps on volcanoes, pyroclastic flows that release water, rainfall on volcanic debris, and failure of natural dams (for example crater lakes). Landslides and lahars can cause many fatalities (from drowning and burial) due to their rapid onset; also major damage may be caused to properties and infrastructure.
One of the most documented tragedies caused by a lahar was in 1953 at Mount Ruapehu in New Zealand. After part of the crater lake collapsed a lahar made of mud, silt, rocks and ice flowed into Whangaehu River; this became a 6 metre high wall of water and debris that destroyed one of the support beams of a railway bridge. At 22:21, when the train crossed the bridge, it collapsed plunging the train and all its passengers into the river; 151 passengers died from either drowning or being smothered by silt and debris. Lahars are a regular occurrence by Mount Ruapehu as a lake forms in the caldera from melting snow and volcanic activity tends to disturb this; there have been approximately “60 lahars in the last 150 years”.
Tephra
Tephra describes any fragments that are propelled from the volcano; they are separated into 3 categories: ash (under 2mm), lapilli (2-64mm) and bombs (over 64mm)2. These are usually from explosive volcanoes and can cause impact injuries, respiratory problems, property damage and climate change.
Galeras, Columbia –
Fig 2
Galeras, Columbia –
Fig 2 In 1993 15 researchers were visiting Galeras caldera, Columbia to test eruption prediction methods; when the volcano erupted blasting out large volcanic bombs. 6 of the researchers were killed whilst others received chest and head injuries2. The decision to visit the caldera was a controversial one as “seismic evidence in the form of screw-like shapes called tornillos...showed up weeks prior to the eruption” warning the researchers; yet the trip continued regardless.
Kilauea, Hawaii –
Fig 3
Kilauea, Hawaii –
Fig 3
Another unpredictable site of volcanic activity is Kilauea, Hawaii; it is well known for “lazy rivers of lava” but the layers that make up its sides show evidence of a more explosive past. It is estimated that 1000-1600 years ago tephra was emitted high enough to obstruct air space and golf-ball sized rocks were flung approximately 16km away. Currently many tourists walk up the lava flows unaware of the threat of another explosion of tephra.
Volcanic Gases
Volcanic gases include carbon dioxide (CO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2), hydrogen chloride (HCl), hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and carbon monoxide (CO) 2. Dependent on the type of volcano these are either released when the magma is erupting or are continually released through vents and fumaroles. High concentrations of these gases lead to respiratory distress and sometimes even mortalities (see Table 2); some of them also react with water to produce acid rain. Table 2 - Deaths from Volcanic Gases | Oku Volcanic Field, Africa – 1986 | 1700 | Santa Maria, Guatemala – 1902 | 350 | Dieng Plateau, Java – 1979 | 149 | Etna, Italy – 1650 | 40 | Oku Volcanic Field, Africa – 1984 | 37 | Karthala, Indian Ocean – 1903 | 17 | Vesuvius, Italy – 1873 | 7 | Rabaul, Papua New Guinea – 1990 | 3 | Tangkubanparahu, Java – 1923 | 3 | Los Carran Venados, Chile – 1955 | 2 | Hakone, Japan – 1933 | 1 | Papandayan, Java – 1924 | 1 | Compiled from Volcanoes of the World and Bulletin of the Global Volcanism Program, |

Volcanic gases can also cause secondary problems as the majority are corrosive; they have been found to corrode air craft engines and restrict the engine’s air intake. Between 1992 and 2002, in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park there have been 16 recorded deaths and many other sustained injuries from airplanes ceasing to function properly mid-flight. Scientists proposed that this was due to volcanic gases and therefore have restricted flying over areas with heavy volcanic fumes.
Conclusion
Even though there are more tourists than ever placing themselves at risk by visiting such sites as mentioned above; global knowledge of volcanism and the many hazards it presents has also increased. Geotourism will remain popular regardless of the risks (see Table 1) and increasing media showing the devastation volcanism can result in. The tourist industry is becoming a large source of income to volcanic regions, and as more funding becomes available, research will continue into making these areas safer and predicting when dangerous events (i.e. large scale eruptions, explosions of tephra and/or volcanic gases) may occur.
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